EDU - 06: EDUCATION IN INDIAN SOCIETY UNIT 1: MILESTONES IN INDIAN EDUCATION (35 hrs) Part 1

EDU - 06: EDUCATION IN INDIAN SOCIETY

UNIT 1: MILESTONES IN INDIAN EDUCATION (35 hrs)

      Dravidian education- social structure-  literature- Institutions for scholastic, recreational and legal functions- role of ‘salai ‘in higher education

      Vedic education-characteristics and curriculum- significance of Upanishad in maintaining world peace and sustainable development - vidya and vaidya, two pillars of a civilized society.

       Buddhist education- aim of education and curriculum-Significance of non violence and attitude against materialistic life style.

      A brief account on history of Indian education during British period

      Education in post independent India: Radhakrishnan Commission (1948) , Secondary Education Commission (1952-54), Kothari Commission report (1964-66), New Education Policy 1986

DRAVIDIAN EDUCATION

The term Dravidian derives from the Sanskrit term Dravida. Francis Whyte Ellis of the East India Company was the first scholar to recognize the Dravidian languages as a separate language family, In 1816, he proposed “Dravidian proof" that the languages of South India are related to one another but are not derived from Sanskrit. In 1856, Robert Caldwell's coined the term "Dravidian" for this family of languages from Sanskrit word dravida. Eighty-six languages have been classified as Dravidian. The languages spread out and cover parts of India, South Western Iran, South Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

Three subgroups exist within the Dravidian linguistic family: North Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the most part the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.  Main Dravidian people are Brahui people, Kurukh, Khonds, Gond people, Kannadiga,  Kodava, Malayali , Tamil, Telugu, Tuluva.

From the studies of Harappan Civilisation, it is evident that probably Indian people were of Dravidian origin. They are believed to be migrated from West Asia during pre-historic times. They initially settled in the mountain ranges in Baluchistan and moved further east and settled around Punjab. Later, when the Aryans started invading this region, the Dravidians migrated to the South. They were short stature, dark complexioned, muscular and flat-nosed.  Their culture was superior to the contemporary cultures elsewhere.

Social structure

Dravidians had/were

·         a matriarchal social structure.

• progressive and cultured people.
• Have advanced administrative methods
• using rivers for communication and trade.
• knew the art of shipbuilding and traded with West Asia.
• Priests and scholars occupied at the highest position in the social ladder.  They were most honored and respected people in the society.
• After that Farmers and artisans occupied second position in the social ladder. They were respected for dignity of labour. They were considered as the backbone of their society.
• Then Warriors occupied in the third position. They had to protect the society from invasion. Their love of peace and life of harmony was exemplified by this attitude.

Literature

• Art and Literature flourished during this period. Poets, Scholars and women were honored. 
• Their language was “Pazham tamil”. Most of the Dravidian languages (Malayalam, Tamil, Tulu, Kannada, Telugu) were originated from Pazhamthamil.
• Evidencs of  Dravidian period are from the literature of Tolkappiyam, Pathittupathu, Akananooru, Purananooru, Cilappathikaram, Manimekalai, thirukkural, thiruvantnathapuram varnana, unnineeli charitham etc.

Institutions serving scholastic functions

Ancient educational institutions were under three heads

1.      Institution serving Scholastic function (Pallikkoodam, Kidai, Salai)

2.      Institution serving Social Function (Manram, Mandapan,Maadam, Arangu)

3.      Abstract Social Institutions (Avai, Sabha, sangam)

Kudipallikkodams  

• Kudipallikkodams  were indigenous schools were the small children were taught the three R's. The 3 R's are reading, writing and arithmetic.
• They write in sands.
• Pupils joined the school at the age of five.
• The teachers were called Aasans or Vaadhyaars.
• Rote learning was done under shade.

Kidai

• They were centers of Brahminical learning.
• Vedas were taught there through chanting.
• It was attached mainly to temple.

Salai &  Role of Salai or Vidya salai in Higher Education

• Salais were important educational institutions established and maintained in the surroundings of temples in southern part of India. 
• Minimum number of students was admitted on merit.
• The Salai was a boarding School in which the Brahmin Youth got free boarding and lodging and underwent courses of instructions in the Vedas and other branches of Sanskrit learning.
• Salai offers specialized courses such as Philosophy, Grammar, Law, Geology etc.
• Salais aimed at the holistic development of students.
• Strict discipline were maintained in the Salai.
• Severe punishments and restrictions were there.
• There were also libraries attached to the temples with good collection of books.
• Kanthalloor Salai in Kerala were known as Nalanda of South.
• Muzhikkulam salai, Thiruvilla salai etc are there.

Main features of Dravidian Education

• It was not well organised.
• Education was closely allied with religion.
• They give importance to their traditional jobs.
• They give importance to Physical Education by promoting Kalari, Kalarippayattu, Wrestling, Sword-fighting etc.

Institutions serving social functions.

Manram,Mandapam,madoman arangu needs of the community-social, intellectual, cultureal, and recreationsal. Mnaram was used forvillege sports also. wrestling

VEDIC EDUCATION

Aryans

Most anthropologists concur that the Aryans originated in cold regions, mostly the Central Asia. It is believed that the Germans, Persians, Romans, Greeks, Celts and the Indo-Aryans belonged to the same origin. Aryans migrated to India, Persia and Europe. They worshipped Fire and Sun and used horse for travel. Their physical features were typical – tall and fair with light coloured eyes and sharp aquiline nose and long brown hair. The word Aryan denotes a culture that is a mix of Avesta and Rigveda and adopted by the Eastern part of Indo-Europeans race.

Characteristics of Vedic period

The Vedic period and the literature appear to have been developed approximately between 1500 BC and 600 BC.

“Swadesh Pujyate Raja, Vidwan Sarvatra Pujyate”

This verse widely quoted in India illustrates the significance of education in India. The education system of Vedic period has unique characteristics and qualities which were not found in the ancient education system of any other country of the world.

The term ‘Ved’ has been derived from the Sanskrit word “Vid” means knowledge. The Vedas thus contain knowledge – the knowledge of life.

According to the belief, Vedas are eternal (Nitya – with permanency of their applicability), and (Apourusheya) i.e. these have been formulated and passed on by the God. They are not in script form, but passed on from the teachers to the disciples verbally and the disciples ‘by-hearted’ them. Thus, Vedas are considered to be “Shruti” (heard) and “Smruti” (by-hearted to memory) in nature. 

The formulation of the Vedas is believed to have occurred in three stages

• Stage I – Samhita Period that consists of the Four Vedas – Rigveda, Yajur Veda, Saama Veda and Atharva Veda.
• Stage II – Brahmana Period. Brahmanas are the commentaries on the four Vedas.

 Many explanations and details were added here. 

• Stage III – Upanishad, Aranyakas and Sutra Period – These are further commentaries to the Brahmanas and Vedic concept of life and death and duties to be performed.

Stage I – The Samhita Period 

1. Rigveda 

·      This is the oldest of the Vedic literature.

·      It is composed in 1028 hymns, in praise of the God (Divine power which was considered as formless and that created all beings and controlled them).

·      The text and the chanting formula were carefully handed down by word of mouth from one generation to the next, up to the present period.

·      The poems in the Rigveda are arranged according to the priestly families who chanted and, presumably, had composed the hymns.

·      The hymns have been divided into 10 books called Mandals.

·       Rigveda also throws light on the political, social and economic aspects of the society.

·      It is considered as the origin of the laws of the society and praises of the divine power.    

2. Yajurveda

·         It is a book of sacrificial prayers and formulae to perform the rituals.

·         Yajurved has two types – White (Shukla) Yajurveda and Black (Krishna) Yajurveda. These are the guides for the priests so that they could get the rituals performed in the right manner.

·         The Black Yajurveda contains the prose whereas the White Yajurveda contains the hymns.

3. Saama Veda

·         This contains 1849 hymns.

·         These are the recitals to be sung during ‘Soma sacrifice’. The entire classical Indian music finds its origin in this Veda.

·         This throws a light on the Aryan culture and indicates that they did not have a puritan culture.

·         They did offer intoxicated liquor forms to their Gods and consumed the same during ceremonies and performed dances.

4. Atharva Ved

·         It contains the knowledge of magic formulae to drive away evil spirits and diseases.

·         It is divided into two parts.

·         One of them,  Paippalada is not fully known and the second one, Saunaka is composed into 760 hymns divided into 20 books.

·         The ancient medical science finds its roots here. 

Stage II – Brahmanas 

v  These spell out prayers and sacrificial ceremonies related to the rituals of sacrifice and ceremonies.

v  These also explain the philosophy, manners, and customs of the later Vedic period.

v  There are seven different Brahmanas. These Brahmanas relate to the four different Vedas. During this period, the caste system appears to be formalized.   

Stage III – Aranyakas and Upanishads

1. Aranyakas 

ü  are the forest books that deal with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.

üThey are the links between spiritual and ritual aspects, between the Vedas and Brahmanas.

ü  Knowledge of the symbolism behind the rituals is considered more important than the exactness of the ritual.

üLike the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas also are connected to the Vedas.

2. Upanishads 

      are the philosophical texts that deal with the concepts of life, the Universal Soul and the absolute power,

      the individual self and the science of origin of the universe and the world,

       The mysteries of the nature and more practical way of living life, accepting the absoluteness of the power and the nature.

      The Upanishads criticize the rituals and stress more on the knowledge and Bhakti.

      They also tell about the duties of people and the way to attain liberation.

      There are several Upanishads of which 12 are more important. They also relate to the four Vedas and give practical interpretation of the Vedas. 

3. Vedangas and Sutra Literature

•          The Vedangas are not part of Vedas.

•          These have been composed as condensed prose called Sutras. These are the laws (laws of Manu) and formulae and form the implementable form of the rules that relate to other Vedic text.    

VEDIC PERIOD SOCIETY

Social Structure       

• The society was divided into four Varnas based on the type of work. These were Brahamanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The classes were not hereditary and changed from one to the other.
• The historical records mention about inter-Varna marriages.
• Polygamy and Polyandry were in vogue.
• The social structure was well formulated and the Vedas laid down the rules of governance and social justice.
• Women were highly respected and there was no bar on their education.

Kingdoms and Kingship     

• Initially, kings were elected by the society. They remained in power till they enjoyed the confidence of the people. In the later periods, hereditary system got introduced.
• The kingdoms had democratic system where the kings were answerable to the people.
• There were Open houses (gram Sabhas or General Assemblies) and consultative committees (Samitis) where strategic decisions of the state were taken in close consultations with the ministers and advisors.  
• The king, his followers and retainers abided by their laid down duties.
• The kingdoms were organized into Gram (Village) as the lowest unit. There were tribes that were referred to as Jana.
•  The Kingdoms had ministers who looked after portfolios like General Administration, The Army, Trade, Taxation, Agriculture and Industries, Justice etc. The armies were well organized. Taxation system was efficient.
• There were education institutes in the form of Gurukul (Brahmin scholars ran the system where the students stayed in Ashrams i.e. boarding).
•  Later Vedic period also saw transition from Kingship towards Republics.

Economy      

• During the early Vedic period the society appears to be of cattle grazers (pastoral system) and later the scriptures mention settlements and agriculture as the main stay of economy (agrarian system).
• Barter system was in vogue.
• Vaishyas were the main stay of commerce and conducted trading activities.
• The basic crafts like carpentry, metal working, tanning, weaving, pottery-making were practiced in earlier periods. In the later Vedic period, more crafts came into being, like chariot-making, making weapons of war. This period saw advancement in metallurgy.        

Education during Vedic Period

·         The education system is known as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient system of education was based on the Vedas and therefore it was given the name of Vedic Educational System.

·         Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life.

·         The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.

·         Some scholars have sub-divided Vedic Educational period and into Rig Veda period. Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn) period, Smriti period, etc but all these period, due to predominance of the Vedas, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations.

·         The education system of Vedic period has unique characteristics and qualities which were not found in the ancient education system of any other country of the world.

·         No state control on education

 Education was a private affairs of the people managed entirely by Brahmans. Ruler of the country had a very little directly to do with education.

·         High status to teachers

·         Residential school 

·         Medium of instruction was Sanskrit.

·         Wide spread education of women.

·         Ultimate aim of Education was Self-Realization.

·         Immediate aim of education was Vocational.

Aims of Vedic Education

• Ultimate aim of Education was Mukthi or Self-Realization.
• Immediate aim of education was Vocational.
• Development of personality.
• Formation of Character.
• Preservation and Transmission of Culture.
• Stress on social Duties.
• Realisation of Brahmin in this material world.

Curriculum

·         Although the education of this period was dominated by the study of Vedic Literature, historical study, stories of heroic lives and discourses on the puranas also formed a part of the syllabus.

·         Students had necessarily to obtain knowledge of metrics.

·         Arithmetic was supplemented by the knowledge of geometry.

·          Students were given knowledge of four Vedas – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

·         The syllabus took within its compass such subjects as spiritual as well as materialistic knowledge, Vedas, Vedic grammar, arithmetic, knowledge of gods, knowledge of the absolute, knowledge of ghosts, astronomy, logic, philosophy, ethics, conduct, etc.

·         The richness of the syllabus was responsible of the creation of Brahman literature in this period.

• The Vedas and Vedangas (Siksha,  Chhandas, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Jyothisha) constitute the core curriculum of Brahmin class.
• Archery, Horsemanship, Chariot race other arts of warfare were the special subject in the curriculum of Kshatriyas.
• Agriculture and Trade were the main subjects of vaisyas.
• Ayurveda, Bhutavidya etc were taught in accordance with the aptitude of the student.

Methods of Instruction

·          It was a pupil-centered education.

·      No single method of instruction was adopted, though recitation by the pupil followed by explanation by the teacher, was generally followed.

• Sravana -listening to the words of texts and uttering by the teacher.
• Manana - is a process of deliberation /reflection of the topic taught.
• Nididyasana - constant meditation on the self as described in those texts.
• Lecture method

• Dialogue, seminars and Symposium

·       Besides question and answers, debate and discussion, story-telling was also adopted according to the need.

·      There was no classroom teaching.

·      However, monitorial system was prevalent and senior pupils were appointed to teach juniors.

·      Travel was regarded as necessary to give finishing touch to education.

Teacher

·         In Bhartiya Darshan ‘Guru’ has significant place. It consists of two words, Gu-ru. The word ‘Gu’ indicated darkness and ‘ru’ means controller. It means to avoid darkness or ignorance. In Vedas the term ‘achariya’ is used for guru.

·         When a student need to become a pupil of any Guru, the recognized way of making application to him was to approach him with fuel in his hands as a sign that he wished to serve him and help to maintain his sacred fire. With ‘Upanayana’ ceremony the  disciple  (shishya) gained the generous shelter and patronage of his guru.

·         Guru is considered greatest treasure of knowledge. In educative process, teacher and students are the two components; a teacher provides physical, materialistic and spiritual knowledge to his students.

·         Guru satisfies the curiosity and needs of his students.

Teacher -pupil relationship

• The teacher was the spiritual father of his students. Gurus were taking care of their pupil in same manner as a father takes care of his son.
• The teacher was apparent surrogate, a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer, friend and philosopher, moral educator, reformer character and personality builder, importer of knowledge and wisdom, most of all religious and spiritual guide.
• Every student was required to serve the teacher compulsory.

  Important Ceremonies

1.                              Vidhyarabha - Learning of alphabets at the age of 5.

2.                              Upanayana - child become sikshya of guru

3.                              Upakarma - The Veda teaching begins with Upakarma..

4.                              Upasarjana - end of each years academic programme.

5.                              Samavarthana (Snana) - Convocation and end of student’s life in gurukula.

Freedom and Discipline

Due to academic freedom, students remained busy in thinking and meditation. It  enhanced originality among them-

1.      He is to be administered guru.

2.        He is able to obey his guru.

3.        He may be punished by his guru.

4.        He is to be wished by his guru.

5.        He is to be preached by his guru.

6.        He is to be treated equally.

7.        He is devoted and committed to acquired wisdom

In the Dharma Sutra, there are rules laid down for the conduct of both teachers and pupils. The pupil was subjected to a rigid discipline and was under certain obligations towards his teacher. He should remain with his teacher as long as his course lasted and not live with anybody else.

Significance of Upanishad in maintaining world peace and sustainable development

Sustainable development is a holistic approach which focuses on man’s sustenance and living in harmony with nature, and its manifestations, but to sustain this harmony is a big challenge for people in contemporary times. India’s traditional wisdom Sustainability has garnered a great deal of attention and discussion, and has been extensively reported in the Indian scriptures. Lessons from ancient wisdom help sensitize, accept, respect and appreciate nature and the environment, and apply their holistic vision and approaches judiciously in solving our problems. The UN General Assembly acknowledged this approach in its session on Sustainable Development: Harmony with Nature and stated, ‘The Vedic philosophy of India has always emphasized the human connection with nature. The four Vedas, the Upanishads and the eighteen Puranas are enriched with offers to different Gods and Goddesses, which are practiced through rites and rituals that ensure compliance towards the preservation and protection of manifestations of nature.

·         They accord sacred position to trees, animals, rivers, etc.

·         Most festivals spread across the year involve an individual to get back to the elements of nature in the form of animals, vegetation (plants and trees), water (rivers) and sources of energy and light (sun, moon and the stars).

·         Vedism is a way of life based on scriptures called Aranyakas which were written by sages who lived in the forest. Man, in Indian culture, is taught about the divineness of nature and hence to respect it.

·         The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas and Smriti contain some of the earliest messages on ecological balance and the need for people’s ethical treatment of nature. They emphasize harmony with nature and recognize that all natural elements hold divinity’.

·         All these scriptures emphasize the need for a balanced and justified approach towards human values, economic development and environment. Further, a balance has to be struck between spiritual and materialistic values, between greed and compassion, between self-restraint and self-indulgence, and between violence and peace.

·         Development is essential and inevitable for growth and evolution of humankind. Society and environment along with economic growth have been identified as the three pillars of development. Therefore, practitioners and future managers need to consider the well-being of the stockholders along with being able to manage the other stakeholders – consumers, employees and the community. They should also be able to manage the well-being of the future generations who are the distant stakeholders. Sensitivity and awareness of the managers need to be worked upon to ensure that they hold a broad perspective to development and consider the multiple-party view while taking decisions. Conflict between the short-term immediate gain and the long-term larger benefits will arise and therefore, it is the responsibility of the educational system to develop sustainability-sensitive managers.

·         The Indian civilization has blossomed in close, sacred and divine association with the nature.

·         Indian philosophy and religion preach about being compassionate towards all life forms and address it as ‘Dharma’.

·         The Indian scriptures reinforce the Unity of Divinity as mentioned in Yajurveda.

·         The fundamental concept is of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (all beings on the earth are a part of family). Hence, we should take care of the well-being of all beings just as we do for our family members.

·          ‘Aham Brahma asmi’, which means ‘I am Brahma’. ‘I’ is the self referred to as ‘Atman’ in the traditional Indian scriptures. This implies Brahma and Atman are identical. Reality is omnipresent.

·         It is to this that the Bhagvad Gita refers when it speaks of Avibhaktam ca bhutesu – ‘Undivided even in the midst of division’.

·         Covet not the wealth of another’. To covet the wealth of another is to display utter ignorance of the fact that the tiniest part of the universe is impregnated with whole.) This refers to developing harmony with nature and not exploit the resources of nature for one’s own selfish purpose.

·         The Purusharthas, referred to in Vedic texts and within the great epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, are translated in Sanskrit as the "goals of human existence" or "the soul’s purpose." These universal aims influence every thought and deed of our lives. They are artha, kama, dharma, and moksha.

Artha is material welfare and the pursuit of the means we need to survive and prosper within the complex political and economic forces of our times. Kama is desire, our experience of enjoyment, pleasure, beauty, sensual satisfaction, love, and delight. Dharma is right action in accord with natural law (Rta), service to the greater good, and the discovery of our true purpose, why we are here. And, moksha is spiritual realization and freedom.

Thus the Indian scriptures focus on the harmony and well-being of the large human order based on cooperation and sacrifice for the future generations and preservation of resources; this is currently being emphasized by many scholars as ‘sustainability science’, which finds reduction in consumption as a tool to support and balance the existence of various economic and social activities in this world. Hence, sustainable development should be taught to management students to prepare them to accept the challenge of ‘making the world a better place to live, not only today, but also tomorrow and forever’.

Vaidya, The Vedic Knowledge Of Healing

 “The very word ‘Veda’ has its derivational meaning, i.e., the fountain-head and illimitable store-house of all knowledge. Vedas contain all the knowledge needed by mankind relating not only to the so-called ‘spiritual’ matters but also to those usually described as purely ‘secular’, ‘temporal’, or ‘worldly’; and also to means required by humanity as such for the achievement of all-round, complete and perfect success in all conceivable directions.

The Sanskrit verb-root vid means to know, understand, perceive and learn. Another derivation of the root vid is the word vidya, which refers to learned knowledge or science. According to some, we can distinguish 4 sciences; (1) the Veda; (2) logic and metaphysics; (3) the science of government; and (4) the practical arts such as medicine.

Indian ancient and traditional medical science is known as vaidya, a direct derivative of the word vidya. This shows the intimate connection between the Veda and this specific science.

To heal, on the other hand, is expressed through the verb-root sham. This root carries as primary meaning, ‘to exert oneself, especially in performing ritual acts’. But also ‘to pacify’, ‘to destroy’, ‘to sooth’, ‘to hurt or injure’. The word ‘sham’ means healing, the alleviation or cure of disease. It can also be used in the sense of tranquility, rest and final happiness, the emancipation from all the illusions of existence.

Disease in a human being arises when an imbalance creates a gap or hiatus within the structure and process of the organism. This immediately produces disorder in the human system. Whether this hiatus is of a physical or a non-physical nature is not of immediate importance. The hiatus will result in an imbalance in the three doshas or humors in the human system. These humors are the life forces of vata, pitta and kapha. A physical problem can reveal itself first through the mind. And a psychological problem can express itself through the physical body. Vedic healing is in the first place non-dualistic and holistic. Causes and effects need not always be exactly established, although the deepest possible understanding of the origin and root of a problem will always be helpful to the process of healing.

Ancient Vedic healing applied three principles. They are (1) mani or gems, (2) mantra or sacred sound formulas and (3) aushadha or medicine, which could be either herbal or mineral. These three healing principles each relate to one of the koshas or sheaths, which together constitute the embodiment of the human being. They are

·         Anandamaya kosha or the causal body;

·         Manomaya kosha or the astral body: and

·         Annamaya kosha or the physical body.

We can also relate these three koshas to the three planes of being: the transcendental plane of pure consciousness, the subtle or astral plane of intellect and thought, and the gross plane of the emotional and physical body. Each of these planes will be affected in their own way by an imbalance or disease. So we will have to apply the healing process to each if we intend to effect a complete and total healing.

   The Annamaya kosha, the sheath of nourishment, forms the sthula sharira or the gross frame. This is the physical body. Its healing is undertaken through the application of medicines, either herbal or mineral. This is called aushadha. Herbal medicines are primarily applied within the traditional healing system called Ayurveda. Its name means ‘knowledge of longevity’. It is considered one of the sacred sciences and a supplement to the Atharvaveda.

Within the Indian tradition, it is very common to consult a priest or other kind of ritual performer as a consultant for advice by those who seek a remedy for their problems either of a spiritual, mental or physical nature. In this modern world, some pharmaceutical industry has recognized the value of the indigenous knowledge with regards to remedies and medicines, using the knowledge received from the Vedic Rishis or Seers and handed down through the generations to our times to develop new therapies.

The Atharva-veda, considered by some to be the oldest among the four Vedas, contains invocations relating to bodily and mental diseases.

Its Upaveda, the Ayurveda (life-science) was mainly oriented towards preventing diseases and healing through herbal remedies, but it also later developed other medical specialties. Good health was not only considered generally desirable, but also priced as a precondition for reaching spiritual fulfillment. Medicine as a charity was widely recommended and supported by the rulers. Herbal compounds can be given orally, as pills, tinctures or mixed with clarified butter or ghee. Ayurveda is also well known for the application of herbal compound oils through special massaging techniques. In this, the ancient knowledge of the nadis or meridians, the energy flows through the body, is essential.

Two Indian medical handbooks, the Carakasaṃhita and the Susruta-saṃhita became famous in the ancient world far beyond India.  Caraka deals mainly with general medicine and identifies hundreds of medical conditions for which mainly plant pharmaca are prescribed. Susruta focuses on surgery, which by that time was already highly developed, with an array of specific surgical instruments. Indian surgeons were famous in the ancient world; their skills were especially appreciated by the wounded in the frequent wars. Hindus also called upon the divine physician of the gods Dhanvantari, "the one who removes arrows." The theory of Ayurveda was based on the tridoṣa theory, which is older than the similar Greek three-humours teaching, used for diagnosis as well as in the treatment of diseases. While the healthy body has a perfect balance of vata, pitta, and kapha, disease is a disturbance of that harmony, to be cured by re-establishing the right proportion.

Ayurveda was also applied to animals and plants. Ancient India also had hospitals as well as animal clinics. Western pharmaceutical companies who apply for world-wide patents on medicinal plants discovered and described by the ancient Indian Vaidyas.

The second ancient system of medicine practiced since time immemorial is that which is called Siddha. It is applied to certain supernatural faculties which can be attained through the practice of yoga. But, it also means sacred and divine, and healed or cured. Siddha medicine is one of the branches of traditional Vedic alchemy. It traces its origin to Rishi Agastya. As Agastya is strongly identified with the southern part of the subcontinent, it is here that Siddha medicine is most widely known and practiced. As it is a science with its roots in alchemy, we find it applies mostly medicines of a mineral nature. Whereas Indian Ayurvedic or herbal medicine knows no contra-indications or other dangers in the application of

the medication, Siddha medicine works with compounds which can be poisonous, especially when applied without enough expertise.

SALIENT FEATURES OF VEDIC EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

1.      Education was confined to the upper castes

Education was given to uppercaste people who are strictly Brahmacharis. In Indian tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided into four stages of which BRAHMACHARI is the second phase. This is the time set aside for learning and acquiring skills.

·         During Vedic period, most of the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas had their education in a unique system called gurukulam.

           Students had their education by living with their preceptors in forests far removed from cities, towns or villages. The life of students who were called SHISYAS was very rigorous and demanding. Those who failed to live up to these high standards would simply fall by the wayside.

Vedic period is unique in the existence of sages like Gautama and Jaimini who were founder of different schools of Indian philosophy like Nyaya and Purva Mimamsa. This was a period of intense intellectual activity and speculation, which we hardly find even now. While Nyaya and Vaisheshika were theistic philosophies, Sankhya was atheistic.

·         There were of two types of BRAHMACHARIS who attended such GURUKULAMS, they were: UPAKURVANA BRAHMACHARI who remains a student for a limited time period after which he marries and becomes a householder and NAISHTHIKA BRAHMACHARI who remains a student and celibate throughout life dedicated to the pursuit of learning.

2.      Infusion of Spiritual & Religious Values:

The primary aim of ancient education was instilling a spirit of being pious and religious glory of God and good of man. The pursuit of knowledge was a pursuit of religious values. Education without religions instructions was not education at all. It was believed that a keener appreciation of spiritual values could be fostered only through a strict observance if religious rites.

3.      Character Formation and Personality Development

So much stress laid on character building as in the Vedic period. Wisdom consisted in the practice of moral values. Control of senses and practice of virtues made one a man of character. Moral excellence could come only through practising moral values. The teacher and the taught were ideals of morality, for both practiced it all through their lives.  The Guru in the ancient times realized that the development of personality is the sole aim of education. The qualities of self-esteem, self confidence, self restraint and self respect were the personality traits that the educator tried to inoculate in his pupils through example.

4.      Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values

The inculcation of civic virtues and social values was an equally important objective of education in India. The Brahmachari after his education in the Gurukulas went back to the society to serve the rich and the poor, to relieve the diseased and the distressed. He was required to be hospitable to the guests and charitable to the needy. After a certain period of studies he was required to become a householder and to perpetuate his race and transmit his culture to his own off springs.

5.      Knowledge

Education is knowledge. It is man’s third eye. This aphorism means that knowledge opens mans inner eye, flooding him with spiritual and divine light, which forms the provision for man‘s journey through life.

6.      Medium of Instruction

As these educational institutions were managed and organized by Brahmans and all the books written in Sanskrit, therefore the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.

7.      The ‘Upnayana’ Ritual

The word upnayana means to take close to, or to being in touch with.  It was performed before the child was taken to his teacher. This ceremony was performed at the ages of 8,11 and 12 for the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, respectively. The ceremony signalled the child’s transition from infancy to childhood and his initiation into educational life. It is known as “dwija”- means twice born. The first birth is physical while the second birth is a spiritual one. The second birth occurs whenone uptakes fulfilling a role in society at the time of upanayanam, initiation ceremony. Human being s must b twice born. A child is first born of a good father and mother and then to his spiritual master and the Vedas. In this context, the term upanayana means putting the students in touch with his teacher.

8.      Celibacy or Brahamacharya

Every student was required to observe celibacy in his specific path of life. Purity of conduct was regarded as of supreme importance. Only the unmarried could become students in a Gurukul. On entering student life, the student was made to wear a special girdle called a makhla‘. Its quality depended on the caste of the student. The students were not allowed to make use of fragrant, cosmetic or intoxicating things.

9.      Alms System

The student had to bear the responsibility of feeding both himself and his teacher, this was done through begging for alms, which was not considered bad. Since every domestic knew that his own son must be begging for alms in the same way at some other place. The reason behind the introduction of such a practice was that accepting alms induces humility. The student realized that both education and subsequent earning of livelihood were made possible for him only through society‘s service and its sympathy. For the poor students, Begging for alms was compulsory and unavoidable, but even among the prosperous, it was generally accepted practice.

10.  Practicability

Apart from intellectual aspect of education its practical side was not lost sight off and along with art, literature and philosophy, students got a working knowledge of animal husbandry, agriculture and other professions of life. In addition education in medicine was also imported.

11.  Duration of Education

In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education up to the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life students were divided into three categories:

a) These obtaining education up to the age of 24 – Vasu

b) These obtaining education up to the age of 36 – Rudra

c) These obtaining education up to the age of 48.- Auditya.

12.  Plain Living and High Thinking

The education institutions were residential in the form of Gurukulas situated in forest, where teachers and pupils lived together. Education imparted was in the pure, colm and charming atmosphere of the Gurukulas and Ashramas and emphasis was laid on the development of character through Plain Living and High Thinking‘.

13.  High place to Indian culture

The ancient Indian education system was also successful in Preserving and spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art of writing, it was only because of the destruction of temples and monasteries by invaders that literature was lost. The cultural unity that exists even today in the vast- sub continent in due to the successful preservation and spread of culture and the credit goes to Ancient Education System.

14.  Commercial Education and Mathematics Education

Commercial education and Mathematics education is also one of the chief features of vedic period. The ideas of the scope and nature of commercial education can be held from manu. Knowledge of Commercial geography, needs of the people of various localities, exchange value and quality of articles and language spoken at different trade centre were considered necessary.

Theory of banking was also included in the course. As far as Mathematics education is concerned, ancient Indian quite early evolved simple system of geometry. Shulva sutra are the oldest mathematical works probably composed between 400 BC and 200 A. D. Aryabhata (476.52 BC) is the first great name in Indian Mathematics. The concept of Zero also belonged to this period.

15.  Female Education

During the Vedic age women were given full status with men. For girls also the Upanayan (initiation ceremony) was performed and after that their education began. They were also required to lead a life of celibacy during education. They used to study the Vedas and other religious and philosophy books, they were free to participate in religious and philosophical discourses. Many ‘Sanhitas’ of Rigveda were composed by women. In Gurukulas the gurus treated male and female pupils alike and made no distinction what-so-ever.

FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN VEDIC PERIOD

1.            Gurukulas

Gurukulas were the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural surroundings away from noise and bustle of cities. Gurukula as the name indicates was the family of the teacher and his residence where the students used to stay during the period of study. Parents sent their wards at the age of five years to nine years according to their castes after celebrating their Upanayana Samskar. Pupils lived under the roof of their guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct supervision of their Guru.

Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of buildings. However the institution was built up around the family of teacher. The primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were like sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like family.

2. Parishads: Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college. parishad in Upanishads, has been used for a conference of learned men, assembled for deliberations upon philosophical problems. Later on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived in good number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres of imparting knowledge. In the words of Dr. R. K. Mukherjee, Parishad correspondences to University of students belonging to different colleges.

3. Sammelan

Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for learned discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.

Buddhism and Education

In India during the time of Buddha, there was a racial discrimination according to profession of man, and according to birth.  In the society Brahmanism dominated the society and established their supremacy in the country. They enjoyed rights for religious training and education. But other category of people deprived of their religious and educational rights. At that time priesthood got upper hand. In this background a religious revolution started in ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy.

It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of Indian culture and civilisation.

Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism did not write any book himself. His followers made the collection of his preaching 100 years after his death. The collection is known as ‘Tripitikas’.

1.   Aims of education

·      The goal of Buddha’s teaching-the goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom of Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom.

·      Buddha further taught us that everyone has the potential to realize this state of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature, not something one obtains externally.

·      All round development of child’s personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.

·      attainment of Nirvana

·      Is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man.

·      Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious.

·       Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance.

·      The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

·      It aimed at regaining our intrinsic nature.

·      it also teaches absolute equality which stemmed from Buddha‘s recognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdom and nature. Buddha‘s teaching helps us to realize that innate, perfect, ultimate wisdom. With wisdom, we can then solve all our problems and turn suffering into happiness.

·      In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.

·      Preparation for life, there was a provision for imparting wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.

·      Four Noble Truths in Buddhism

•          Life is Full of Sufferings

•          The Cause of Sufferings is desire

•          The end of the Suffering is Possible.

•          This End is Possible by Following Eight Fold Paths

·      Buddha formulated eightfold path, known as ‘Ashtang Marg’. They are

 (i) Right Will,

(ii) Right Speech,

(iii) Right Actions,

(iv) Right livelihood,

(v) Right Exercise, 

(vi) Right Memory,

(vii) Right Concentration, and

        (viii) Right knowledge.

The nature of mass education

In the early period, Buddhist Education was limited within the monasteries and only for the members of the monastery.

·      open to all; even lay people got scope to have education in those institutions.

·      irrespective of caste, creed, and religion got opportunity to have education which was denied by the superior class in the society.

·      The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centres of learning and only the Buddhist monks could be admitted to them for education.

·      no planned arrangement for mass education as such during the period. 

·       Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms, the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks.

2.      Curriculum

·   Buddhist Education system was developed on the basis of some basic principles.

·   It gave emphasis on the moral, mental and physical development and also to divert the students towards the Sangha rules and guide them to follow it.

·   The main stress was given to have a clear idea of Tripitaka.

·    Chiefly spiritual in nature. It was because the chief aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of the religious books was most important. This type of curriculum was meant only for the monks.

·   Besides these, spinning, weaving, printing of the clothes, tailoring, sketching, accountancy, medicines, surgery and coinage were the other subjects of Budhist education.

·   At the initial stage medium of education was mother tongue, later it included Pali and Prakrit and in the following days Sanskrit also included as a medium of instruction.

·   Vocation educations were taught such as spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement.

·   They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones.

·   Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Viharas were given training in different type of vocations and also earn their livelihood.

·   It is to be mentioned that Buddhist Educational Syllabus included Vedic subjects also. In this way difference of Buddhist & Vedic Education wiped out and united. This was a historic development in the history of Education in India.

In Buddhist’s education, education was divided into two stages:

         i) Primary Education, and

ii) Higher Education.

Primary Education

·      Aimed at teaching reading, writing and arithmetic.

Higher stage

·      Students studied a variety of different subjects.

·      The Buddhists raised India’s international status.

·      In Buddhist monasteries, Word knowledge, Painting, Printing, Sculpture, Medicine Knowledge, Ayurveda, surgery, Logic Spiritual Education, Games and Sports, military training Archery, Geology, Arithmetic and Religious discussion, Agriculture, Astrology, Astronomy, Law etc were included.

·      Reading, writing and Arithmetic (Three R’s) Grammar, were also given.

·      Everyone was free to choose his subject without any restriction.

3. Methods of Teaching

·         Verbal Methods was used during the Vedic age.

·         Buddhism emphasis teaching of all subjects through Pali.

·         Question-Answer Method, Debates and Discussions were organized to bring about proper education.

·         Direct Method had a great recourse for teacher and knowledge was presented in the form of sutras Method of Meditation was practiced by Monks to realize the supreme knowledge.

• Lecture, Self Study, Meditation, Discussion, writing also was introduced during this period

4. Qualities and Responsibilities of the teacher

·   In the Buddhist’s period, teacher was called ‘Acharya’. He was pious, religious and spiritual. The teacher must give the Bhikshus all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance by teaching and by instruction.

·   The teacher himself must spend at least ten years as a monk and necessarily must have the purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity.

·   Regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was fully responsible.

·   The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill.

·   The duties of the teachers were imparting education to the students, writing Book, propagation of religion, discussion, and arrangement of debate for the clarification of serious subjects.

·   They were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students.

·   They kept eyes on the all round development of the students. Especially they were serious about the obeyance of the Sangha rules, meditation and concentration to their learning.

·   Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order.

·   Bhikshus were the teacher.

·   Buddhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices.

·   The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance.

·   There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.

During this period, teachers played important role to help the Bhikshus (students) as stated below.

(i)              Developing Right Knowledge,

(ii)            Developing Right Will,

(iii)          Developing Right Speech,

(iv)          Developing Right Conduct,

(v)            Developing Right Memory,

(vi)          Developing Right means of Livelihood, and

(vii)        Developing Right Concentration

 Categories of teachers

b)  Teacher will follow the Buddha’s Eight-fold Path. In Buddhism, teachers are of three distinct types: (i) Acharyas (ii) Upadhyas, and (iii) Special Teachers.

c)   According to Sutras Literature, Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continuence of his apprenticeship.

5. Life at sangha viharas

The teacher got prominence at Viharas, too, though a little more democratic attitude was there. The student had to wake up early in the morning and give his teacher teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinsed jug, and sweep the place. Afterwards he has to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with. If he wants to accompany his teacher he has to walk too far from or near from him. He has not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher.

Just like in Vedic Age, here also they had to go for begging alms. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him. They were not allowed to go outside without the permission of teachers. Teachers were respected and honored by the students as well as the whole society. The student was called ‘ Sadhi Viharika’

6. Concept of Student

·   Is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man.

·   Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious.

·   Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance.

·   Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life.

·   The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. He will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils.

Admission

·   Monasteries were the centre for imparting education during the Buddhist period.

·   For admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him for giving education.

·   The novices first entered into the Sangha (Bhikkhu Sangha), then had to follow the monastic rules and Sangha rules. Even today these rules are followed.

There are many rules regarding food, dress, bed room, meditation, dedication and other rules as laid down by the Sangha. They had to undergo with physical exercise for maintenance of their health. They had to clean the campus, rooms, and halls, serve the teachers (Achariya) and assist them in various field. This was the primary duties of the students.

·      After admission the students had to follow monastic rules along with their syllabus and they were classified according to merit. The period of Education was 12 years.

·      Students put questions to the teachers; teachers answered the question and discussed matters related to their Education.

·      Students had to perform daily routine works beyond learning.

·      The teacher of a Buddhist monastery were empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of serious disobedience.

6. Women education

·   Women education during Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to admit women in monasteries but after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his step mother for admission in the Vihars with many restriction and reservations.

·   When Buddhist monasteries had developed into colleges of international reputation, women did not receive any education because of their early marriages.

·   permission was given to women in aristocratic and commercial sections of society. Large number of ladies from these circles joined the order and became life-long students of religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well.

·   Besides this, the rules of admission of women in Sangh were hard enough.

·   Two years of probation was fixed for women-monks for their permanent membership.

·   Strict rules were enforced for women monks.

·   The women monks were not allowed to meet any male monk in loneliness and their residence was arranged separately at a distant place.

·   They were not given any permanent post in the sangh.

·   Some monk could give her religious instruction twice a month in the presence of another monk.

·   Buddhist Sangh had given attention to the cultural development and social uplift of the women.

·   Mostly women entered the Sangh out of keen interest and deep religious feelings. Some had also joined it to get rid of the troubles of the wordly affairs.

·   As the Bhikshunis did not like to maintain inferior position, so they naturally were more interested in the studies leading pious life.

·   There were Bhikshunis whose spiritual knowledge was very high and they could influence a good number of people.

·   Many Bhikshunis took the duties of social services also. They serve the sick, orphans, etc., and considered it to be their prime duty.

·   Some of them had studied the philosophy deeply and had become poetess and writers. .

·   Some of them had studied even politics and took active part in politics of the day.

·   Some of them had even gone to foreign countries to preach Buddhism. Sheelbhattarika, Prabhudevi and Viyanka were famous in those days as poets and writers. The sister of the Emperor Asoka Sanghamitra was very famous Bhikshunis, who had done remarkable services of Buddhism

PABBAJA CEREMONY

·      Pabbaja was an initial ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means ‘to go out’. So the child would go out of the home to join ‘ Sangha Vihara’ or ‘ Buddha Vihara’. It was a Buddhist version of the Upanayana Ceremony of Vedic Age.

·      The students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. After admission he had to change his old clothes and all old ways and the manners of living. The child would shave his head, and would wear yellow cloths.

·      He would start the education by taking the oath “ Buddham Sharanam Gachami’ Dharmam Sharanam Gachami Sangham Sharanam Gachami” Which means “ I take refuge in Buddha I take refuge in Dharma I take refuge in Sangha”

·      An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste.

·      For the Pabbajja ceremony the minimum age was eight years. 

·      The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.

Rules for sharman

1. Not to kill any living being

2. Not to accept anything given to him.

3. Live free from the impurity of character.

5. Not to tell lie

6. Not to take food at improper time

7. Not to use luxurious things.

UPASAMPADA CEREMONY

·      After the Pabbajja ceremony, education continued for twelve years.

·      When the student received twelve years education, he had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony that it is at the age of twenty years.

·      This ceremony was democratic in nature. 

·      The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the same.

·      After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.

Discipline

·      Buddha teaching contains three major points discipline, meditation and wisdom.

·      Wisdom is the goal and deep meditation or concentration in the crucial process toward  achieving wisdom.

·      Discipline through observing the precepts, is the method that helps one to achieve deep meditation; wisdom will then be realized naturally.

·      After getting education in the Buddhist schools, colleges and universities, one cannot do any injustice, tell a lie, commit theft, cannot kill, cannot be addicted in wine and make himself free from moral turpitude. In this way students become free from greed, lust, enmity and ignorance.

·      Buddhism encompasses the entire collection of works by Buddha Shakyamuni called the Tripitaka.

This can be classified into three categories Sutra, Vinaya (precepts or rules) Sastra (Commentaries) which emphasize meditation, discipline and wisdom respectively. The entire Tripitaka consists of Buddha’s teachings, message, philosophy and rules for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunies.

·      The monk and the students in Buddhist period were following simple living and high thinking principle. their lives were full of purity, nobleness, dutifulness and humanity and are suppose to follow the Astang Marg- the word Samma  means ‘proper’, ‘whole’, ‘thorough’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, and ‘perfect’

1.      Samma-Ditthi — Complete or Perfect Vision

2.      Samma-Sankappa — Perfected Emotion or Aspiration,

3.      Samma-Vaca — Perfected or whole Speech

4.      Samma-Kammanta — Integral Action.

5.      Samma-Ajiva — Proper Livelihood.

6.      Samma-Vayama  — Complete or Full Effort, Energy or Vitality

7.      Samma-Sati — Complete or Thorough Awareness.

8.      Samma-Samadhi — Full, Integral or Holistic Samadhi.

Teaching Method

·   At first there was a private and group teaching. Later it developed into class room. In due course Sangharamas developed into residential college and universities.

·   universities played major role in the propagation of Buddhism, Buddhist history, Art & Culture.

·   Many valuable books were written.

·   universities like Nalanda, Vikramsila, Sompuri, Salban, Jagaddal, Pandit Vihar, Taxila played remarkable role. The supremacy of those universities was unparallel. Students from China, Myanmar, Thailand, Gandhara and all parts of ancient India came to have their education in those universities. Buddhist Education is a combination between individual and classroom education

·   The main of the Budhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating people. After completion of the education the student were encouraged to undertake long tours to gain the real and practical knowledge.

·   Though educational system was dominated by religion yet there was provision for imparting practical knowledge in Spinning, Weaving, Drawing, and Medicine etc.

·   Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.

The purpose of this assembly was

·         to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education was based on morality. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral impact on all concerned.

·         to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion.

·         to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish one’s own cult.

·         rules were framed for discussion.

·         encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period.

·         The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge to established the disputes point the following evidences of eight kinds were required theory, cause, example, parallelism, contradiction, evidence, argument and induction. It encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period.

·   The method of teaching was mostly oral in nature.

·    The medium of instruction was folk language- Pali.

·   Due to shortage and non availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent. 

·   The teacher used to give lessons and put questions on the learning to the novices who learnt them by heart.

·   gives lecture on good behaviour and required topics

·   The teachers used to teach the students on the basis of telling stories, arranging dialogue.

·   Debate and discussions were arranged to give idea of the subject matter as well as determination of truth, subsequently writing system introduced.

·   Thinking, meditation and self-study were duly emphasized.

·    In viharas and monastic schools Hetu Vidya or inductive method of logic was adopted and through this method the intellect of the pupils was trained.

·   The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the people.

·   Some Buddhist monks are more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully renowned the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the Sanghs has gained the efficiency for solitary meditation.

MERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

1.      Well organized centers- Buddhist education was imparted in well organized centers, monasteries and Vihara which were fit places for the purpose.

2.      Cosmopolitan-Buddhist education was free from communal narrowness.

3.      Simple and austere-Bhikshus led a life of austerity and simplicity

4.      Total development- Buddhist education laid much emphasis on the physical mental and spiritual development of the students.

5.      Disciplined Life- both the teachers and students led disciplined life.

6.      Ideal student teacher relationship.

7.      International importance- Buddhist education helped to gain international importance it also developed cultural exchange between India and other countries of the world.

DEMERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

1.      Buddhist education could not give the proper attention to the occupational, industrial and technical education.

2.      It gave severe blow to the social development because it derided family ties. Leaving their family life Buddha Bhikshus devoted their whole lives to sangh and Buddhism.

 

SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF NON-VIOLENCE IN BUDDHISM

·      The morality of non-violence is the highest virtue of Buddhist ethics.

·      It is for attaining peace, which forms the understanding of nirvana.

·      peace and non-violence are its cardinal virtue.

·      Buddhism rise as an ethical movement, a practical and effortless approach to the problem of salvation and deliverance from the suffering of life.

·      Buddhism made its strong opposition against the Vedic tradition, which was responsible for the animal sacrifice,  instead he teaches to lead to the concept of non-violence.

·      Buddhism give more accentuate to the importance of the qualities of non-hatred (avera) and compassion (karuna), which form the philosophical foundations of the concept of non-violence in its moral sphere.

·      “Hatred does not cease by hatred at any time, but it ceases by love only, it is its nature”.

·      Non-violence is the absence of hatred but sympathy, love and kindness. Absence of hatred promotes love, which is the source of unification of different individuals.

·      Non-violence is asserted from the perspective of the view of compassion, love and kindness towards all living beings.

·      The concept of ahimsa can be defined as the sublime mental state of well being of all irrespective of any consideration. The desire for the good and well being of all creatures ultimately leads to supreme happiness.

·      causes hurt to others mentally or in other way. Hence, according to Buddhism, it is considered as committing violence. One to be nonviolent should not involve in harming others by using harsh languages,  physical actions; he should even think of harming others.

·      A person lose his peace of mind, he starts thinking of harming other. Before causing harm the other, he first get disturbed and in this way he is violent to himself first.

·      A society is impossible to progress and maintain peace when this type of impure human thought persists in the society. Instead, it will distract the social harmony, which is the necessity of a peaceful co-existence.

NON-VIOLENCE AND PANCHASILA

·      The path that leads to nirvana is a definite course for the guidance of the human mind. The human mind is to be disciplined. To attain the stage of mental concentration an adept must be firmly established in moral precept called sila.

·      In Buddhism, Panchasila means five basic tenets of morality and the entire moral code is based on these principles. Panch means five and sila stands for morality or good conduct. Sila also means slab that constitute the base for raising super-structure. Here, the demand is that of a sound moral base.

The Buddha advised to follow these Five Precepts

      1. Not to kill and refraining from causing hurt to living beings:

·         This precept refers to the abstinence from destruction of life.

·         applies to all living being, not just human.

·         indicates the moral obligation to respect the right of others to live.

·         It corresponds to the concept of nonviolence and call upon to control the passion of anger.

·         Intentionally taking the life and killing of other living creatures is thoroughly condemned, according to this precept in Buddhism.

·         Again, killing due to manifestation of anger is not permissible even in self-defence. This injunction of non killing in Buddhist monistic practices has been adhered almost to an extreme. It would be quite unreasonable to deduce that the Buddhist concept of non-killing is a mere negative or abortive principle, that emphasizes refraining from the elimination of animal life, when, on the other hand, every Buddhist is morally bound to look after for the wellbeing of animal world.

·         This emphasis, the perpetual practice of love and kindness to all living beings

·         include measures to prevent the slaughter or sacrifice of animals.

Today, as the world faces to discourage the breeding of animals for consumption would not only be compassionate towards animals, but also towards the humans. There is enough food in the world now to feed us all adequately. Hunger is caused by the unequal economic and power structure which do not allow food to go where it is needed, even when those who are in need are the food producers. Interlocked with these unequal structures are the economic burdens of superpowers and industrializing nations. These structures are as much responsible for murder. Regarding to resolve internal or external conflicts, it is mentioned that “This first precept concerning killing would naturally apply to the settling of internal or external conflicts through non-violent means and renouncing the production and use of weapons, in particular nuclear weapons, which violate all human ethics by threatening life on earth”

      2. Not to steal and refraining from taking which is not given

·         This precept means the abstinence from taking away property of other which is not given without consent.

·         It refers to practice charity and generosity.

·         It co-ordinates to respect the right of ownership to things that belong to others.

·         Stealing is the influence of impure mind. It comes under violence. It is against the principle of nonviolence.

·         Buddhism does not inculcate the philosophic contempt for wealth. As, there is nothing wrong with the wealth as such, only, one should refrain from clinging to it. Stealing other property or wealth encourages violent crime and the sense of civilization declines dramatically.

·         It is must for everybody to live on right livelihood by fair means. Earning one’s livelihood by underweight, fraudulence, bribery, ingratitude, crookedness, mutilation, persecution, confinement and oppression are suggested to be outlawed.

      3. Not to tell lie and refraining from falsehood:

·   This precept concerns about truthfulness and abstinence from telling lies.

·               In Buddhism, there is no room for falsehood.

·               It demands absolute truth, absolute purity.

·               Speaking false to other is highly suggested to be avoided.

·               It covers slander as well as speech which are not favorable for well being of other.

·               It refers to practice sincerity and honesty.

·               There should be harmony between one’s action and his words.

·   All sort of untruth should be avoided in order to avoid hurting other and to establish the highest moral standard and spiritual austerity.

·   Truthfulness is the final standard of Buddhist morality.

·   It also includes the prohibition of using harsh words and frivolous talks. Besides, our thought, speech and action should be made parallel with the truthfulness.

      4. Not to live immorally and refraining from wrong conduct for the satisfaction of sense-desires:

·   The important manifestation here is to abstain from entire range of sensual activities such as greed as well as misconduct of a sexual nature.

·   It refers to practice chastity and self-control. One should guard himself against lust, trespassing through the door of senseorgans.

·   It highlights the necessity to sustain the respect for personal relationships to live peacefully and respectfully. Any case of forced or coercive sexual union comes under violence and it constitutes a transgression.

·   Rape, pornography, and prostitution are becoming common phenomena in some parts of the world. It limits man’s abilities to achieve spiritual liberation as much as it does women’s. The emerging understanding of Buddhist practice points towards the developing of frustrate human beings, freed from the socially learned masculine and feminine patterns of thought, speech and behaviour.

   5) Not to partake intoxicants and refraining from drinks and drugs and from those things that causes confusion and heedlessness:

·   It is to make understand that taking any intoxicant liquor is the cause of torpidity or sluggishness and it also causes disturbance, evil and harm to others in one way or many. In Buddhism, “The principle underlying the precepts is the necessity for perfect mental, moral and physical control, and any stimulant when taken to excess will make control more difficult.

·   Whether the drugs are taken in a powerful form or in the milder guise of coffee, tea or nicotine, the tendency will be the same.

·   Consumption of liquor affects the mental stability, causing the distortion of mental vision that can hardly be allowed in the interest of maintaining sanity and vigilance. One behaves abnormally under the influence of liquor and probably infected with all the dark passions that in the long run generate mental and physical sluggishness and stupidity

The above mentioned five moral code of Panchasila convey the importance of the relationship of the individual with other fellow beings. These are conceived as rights and duties.

Buddhism is essentially a teaching of relationships, not of absolutes.  Any individual cannot be isolated or away from his group of community and society. So, the responsibility of an individual and his social responsibility cannot be considered as separate entities. This relation exists between the individual and society is of immense important to be maintained.

Buddhism is against materialism

We are now living in a very materialistic world. Everything we do involves spending money. Status and wealth are given so much importance. Owning things has become the core of our existence. But does owning material wealth make us happy?

According to Buddhism

• Everything in Life is Temporary

According to Buddhism, there are Three Universal Truths.

First is the Truth of Impermanence or Annica,

Second is the Truth of No Self or Annata.

Last is the Truth of Suffering or Dukkha.

It states that there is nothing that is permanent in life be it goodness, wealth, health and happiness. It also says that there is no self extension and our ownership of things is just a mere concept. Last is that we suffer as we live. So for this,

1. Let go of desires

To find happiness, we need to let go of desiring things. Try buying only the things that you need. Learn to discipline your mind.

2. Try minimalism

Minimalism is a growing movement now. Minimalism means only buying the things that you need instead of trying to fill your home of useless stuff. It gives the freedom to just live in a small home. A small home means having less to pay for mortgage. Cleaning your house is much easier to. Through minimalism, you can create a life that is more meaningful and goes beyond material things.

3. Give away things that we don’t need

Letting go of material possessions has been one of the things the Buddha has done. It gave him freedom and allowed him to travel and spread the wisdom of Buddhism. Through helping others, we feel a sense of goodness; this is immediate karmic energy that gives us that feeling. Another benefit of giving things is freeing our space from negative energies. It also allows us to have a better relationship with others.

4. Do not equate money with success

 Money is not the center of this world. As long as we are alive, we are blessed. If we have money, share it. Money does influence many things and so we can limit the power of money in our life.

5. Live a simple life

Simplicity is equal to freedom. When we live a simple life, we begin to appreciate things that money cannot buy. There is beauty in simplicity.

6. Eat healthy

If we try to eat healthy, we need not spend so much money. Try cooking our own food, boil them, grill them and them prepare them simply. Enjoy raw veggies. Try eating fruits. Learn to eat clean and we can create better life for us.

Turning Away From Materialism

No, money is not evil. Many people say that money is the root cause of all evil, but it is not. It is the desire to possess money that causes evil. It is the bad intent that makes it bad.

As humans, we are prone to desire so many things. We want to have this, we want to have that. Our thirst or hunger for material things pushes us to be less human. It makes us forget compassion. Money is not bad as long as it does not rule us. Learn to use money to help those in need. Learn to be content when we are poor. Poverty does not mean unhappiness; it only becomes so when we think so.

Eight foldpath

1. Right View

2. Right Intention

3. Right Action

4. Right Speech

5. Right Livelihood

6. Right Effort

7. Right Mindfulness

8. Right Meditation

1. Right View

The Right View or the Right Understanding means being able to understand that life is full of suffering. We need to embrace the Four Noble Truths and learn from it. It means to understand life, death and rebirth. It means understanding the path towards Enlightenment. The Right View combines understanding the Three Marks of Existence, Four Noble Truths and understanding Karma. Basically it is knowing and understanding the teachings of the Buddha. Because wisdom is the key to Enlightenment, we must seek to understand it.

2. Right Intention

Our intentions shape our thoughts and actions. They signal us how to feel, think and react on life and the people around us. Buddha teaches that we need to have the intent to be the not self or letting go of our selfishness. We need to embody mindfulness and less of greed, delusion and desire.

3. Right Action

Right Action means not engaging in evil acts such as killing and hurting sentient beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, taking in intoxicants such as drugs and alcohol. Buddha teaches us that we need to turn away from cruelty and evil acts and only partake in acts of kindness and love. We need to show compassion and care towards others.

4. Right Speech

Right Speech states that “It is spoken at the right time. It is spoken in truth. It is spoken affectionately. It is spoken beneficially. It is spoken with a mind of good-will.”

This means that one should only speak if the words will help others, if what is being said is true, the speech should be kind and helpful and finally a person should speak only to promote good-will.

This means that we should shun slander, gossip, argumentative speech, false witness to another and words spoken in spite. We should never spread rumors and try to avoid nagging.

5. Right Livelihood

Right Livelihood means not doing harms ways of earning a living. It means not committing prostitution, selling intoxicants or selling dead animals. But some Buddhists argue regarding the sale of meat.

To the lay person, Right Livelihood means practicing kindness, dutifulness and good conduct when working.

6. Right Effort

The Right Effort means being able to combine Action and Intention in order to attain freedom from suffering. It means disregarding desires that cause suffering to one’s self and other. It means setting aside time for meditation. It means not succumbing to immoral sexual desires. It means to be practicing mindfulness when it is most difficult to do so.

Without the Right Effort, all the teachings of Buddhism cannot be followed by anyone, be it a lay person or a member of the Sangha. A person needs to put effort into achieving Enlightenment.

7. Right Mindfulness

Right Mindfulness means being able to practice mindfulness in every moment of one’s life. Mindfulness means being aware of the exact moment us are living in, not dwelling in the past or the future. It also means being mindful of others.

Mindfulness teaches us to live in the present. To work when work is needed, to rest when we are tired and to avoid doing so many things at the same time. It means living fully in each moment that is given to us.

8. Right Meditation

Right Meditation or Concentration is the ability to let the mind focus on one thing, normally we breath. Since the world is full of things that we regard, our minds race all the time.

Meditation is the cure to stress, suffering, anger, hate and all that is churning in our hearts and mind. When we meditate, we find peace. If the mind is at peace,we will be able to live a life of goodness and virtue.

      A brief account on history of Indian education during British period

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION DURING BRITISH PERIOD IN INDIA

Education policy of the British

British advent created a new place of learning i.e. Missionaries. Their intention is to create a class of Indian who would be “Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste” who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses.

Development of Education during British Period in India

Initially, British East India Company was not concerned with the development of education system because their prime motive was trading and profit-making.  The chronological development of Education during the British Period in India is discussed below

Individual efforts under company rule

·      Culcutta Madrasah was established by Warren Hastings in 1781 to study Muslim laws and customs

·      Jonathan Duncan establishd Sanskritcollege at Bannaras in 1791forHindu laws and philosophy.

·      Fort Willliam college was set up in 1800 by Wellesley for training ofcivil servants of the company. It was closed in 1802.

1813 Act & the Education (Charter Act)

·         Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, who was missionary activists, compelled the East India Company to give up its non-invention policy and make way for spreading education through English in order to teach western literature and preach Christianity. Hence, the British Parliament added a clause in 1813 charter that Governor-General-in-Council less than one lakh for education and allowed the Christian Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.

·         Act had its own importance because it was first instance that British East India Company acknowledged for the promotion of education in India.

·         English language was chosen as the medium of instruction

·         Govt decided to spend the limited resources for teaching western sciences and literature.

·         With the efforts of R.R.M Roy, the Calcutta College was established for imparting Western education.  Also three Sanskrit colleges were set up at Calcutta.

General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823

·         This committee was formed to look after the development of education in India which was dominated by Orientalists who were the great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican. Hence, they created paramount of pressure on the British India Company to promote Western Education. As a result, spread of education in India got discursive between Orientalist-Anglicist and Macaulay’s resolution come across with clear picture of British education system.

Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, 1835

·         This policy was an attempt to create that system of education which educates only upper strata of society through English. To rule in India, they planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes to create a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in taste” who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses. This was also called the “downward filtration theory”. 

·          English become court language and Persian was abolished as court language.

·          Printings of English books were made free and available at very low price.

·         English education gets more fund as compare to oriental learning.

·         Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar)

·         Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee.

Wood’s Dispatch, 1854

·         It is considered as the “Magna Carta of English Education in India” and contained comprehensive plan for spreading education in India.

·         It rejected downward filtration theory.

·         It states the responsibility of State for the spread of education to the masses.

·         It recommended the hierarchy education level- At bottom, vernacular primary school; at district, Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated college, and affiliated universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Presidency.

·         Recommended English as a medium of instruction for higher studies and vernacular at school level

·         Secular education

·         Encourage private enterprises

Hunter Commission (1882-83)

·         It was formed to evaluate the achievements of Wood Dispatch of 1854 under W.W Hunter in 1882.

·          It underlined the state’s role in the extension and improvement of primary education and secondary education

·          It underlined the transfer of control to district and municipal boards.

·          It recommended two division of secondary education- Literary up to university; Vocational for commercial career.

Sadler Commission 1917-1919

·         It was formed to study on the problems of Calcutta University and their recommendations were applicable to other universities also.

·          Their observations were as follows:

I. 12-year school course

II. 3-years degree after the intermediate stage

III. Centralised functioning of universities, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body.

IV. Recommended extended facilities for applied scientific and technological education, teacher’s training and female education.

Hence, we can say the British education system were influence by the aspiration of Christian Missionaries. It was injected to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to increase a number of subordinate posts in administration and in British business concern. That’s why, they emphasis on English as a medium of instruction and also to glorified British conquerors and their administration.

List of Various Educational Committees during British India

The Indian Universities Act, 1904: 

·         The act increased university control over private colleges by laying down stringent conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection by the Syndicate.

·         The private colleges were required to keep a proper standard of efficiency. The Government approval was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliation of colleges.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education

·         The main principle of basic education (better known as Wardha Scheme) is 'learning through activity'.

·         The Zakir Hussain Committee worked out the details of the scheme and prepared detailed syllabi for a number of crafts and made suggestions concerning training of teachers, supervision, examination and administration.

Sargeant Plan of Education

·         This plan envisaged the establishment of elementary schools and high schools (junior and senior basic schools) and the introduction of universal free and compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 14.

·         The British Modern Education was injected in Indian society not for education but to imparting Christianity to the people and creating a class of Anglo-Indian.

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