EDU 07 UNIT II COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN LEARNING - 20hours ( 15 T+ 5 P)

 UNIT II  COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN LEARNING - 20hours ( 15 T+ 5 P)

                  Sensation and Perception- factors, laws

                  Concept formation, Illusion

                  cognitive functions -Thinking, Reasoning-Problem solving and Metacognition

                  Memory- Concept; Types & Strategies to develop memory

                  Forgetting- causes and problems

                  Cognitive neuroscience- basic concepts and relevance in learning

SENSATION

Senses are the gateways of knowledge. All information from outside world is gaining through senses. It is an elementary mental process. We get a sensation only when some sense organs are stimulated but it is not every type of stimulation to which a sense organ will respond. Effectiveness of learning depends upon the number of senses involved in the learning process. Hence a multi sensory approach can cause better learning.

Definition of sensation

The term sensation is used to describe as the simplest of all conscious experiences

Douglas and Holland

Nature of Sensation

1. Simple experiences

Our simple experiences like seeing, hearing, smelling tasting and touching are called sensation and they com through definite sense organs namely eyes, ears, nose skin and the tongue.

2. Cognitive process

We get the knowledge of outside world thorugh sensation. Sensation has been called as the first stageof knowing and cognition.

3. Awareness

Sensation is a physical mechanism by virtue of which an individual has an elementary awareness of the world around him.

4. Without meaning

Pure sensation is a simple expression, without any meaning. As soon as the meanings are interpreted, they become perception. The work of sensation is to interpret the message.

5. Stimulation of sense organs

A sensation is a response or a reaction aroused in us by a stimulus. For example the sensation of seeing arises when the eyes are stimulated by rays of light. Any objects or events that bring a response is called stimulus.

6. Brain as the centre of sensation

When a sense organ is stimulated, it sends nerve currents to the sensory centres of the brain, and the first response of the brain is sensation. Without this brain response, there would be no sensation.

PERCEPTION

Perception is sensation plus meaning. We sense qualities and we perceive objects. Perception gives meaning to sensation. Sensation is awareness of objects and perceptions is the awareness of this or that object. For example, we hear mere music. It is sensation and when we know that it is a sing, it becomes a case of perception.

Definition

According to Edmund Fantino and G.S. Renolds,  Perception is the organizing process by which we interpret our sensory input.

According to William James, “Perception is the consciousness of particular things presented to senses. Sensation is merely a part of perception.

Perception involves two processes.

It involves a sensation through the stimulus of a sense organ and an interpretation of thee sensation. Perception is sensation plus thought.

Nature and characteristics of perception

1. Perception is one’s personal interpretation of an external event.
2. Perception is the result of previous experience
3. Perception is always an act of integration.
4. Perception varies with attention
5. Perception varies according to one’s subjective and objective point of regard.
6. Perception is greatly influenced by goals
7. Perception is selective
8. Accurate and efficient perception depends upon the normal functioning of sense organs.

Factors influencing Perception in Organizational behaviour

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors reside in

1.  In the perceiver

2.  In the object or target being perceived or

3.  In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

1.      Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of individual perceiver.

 The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are

A.            Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, negative attitude of an interviewer that women cannot hold strong positions affects the interview of that person with a women  

B.            Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. When in happy mood, we can do better, while vise versa.

C.            Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, if a boss gives strong support and motivation, the subordinates will show better performance.

D.            Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person while reverse in negative self concept.

E.             Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive.

F.             Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.

G.            Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see.

2.      Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived

1.      Physical appearance . Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.

2.      Verbal communication (Sound)  from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input.Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt to form an impression of the target.

3.      Proximity  The relationship of a target to its background influences perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together. People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

4.      Background:  Background of the target influences the perception of an individual.  

5.      Size

6.      Novelty

7.      Motion

Characteristics of the Situation

1.      Time

Time of perceiving will affect the perception of a person. Eg. He perceives a same object differently in different time.

2.      Work setting work setting affects the perceptive field of a person.

3.      social setting

Factor Influencing Perception

These factors also affect the perceptions of people such as

a. Perceptual learning:

Based on past experiences or any special training that we get, every one of us learns to emphasise some sensory inputs and to ignore others. For example, a person who has got training in some occupation like artistry or other skilled jobs can perform better than other untrained people. Experience is the best teacher for such perceptual skills.

For example, blind people identify the people by their voice or by sounds of their footsteps.

b. Mental set:

Set refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input. Such expectancy keeps the individual prepared with good attention and concentration. For example, when we are expecting the arrival of a train, we listen to its horn or sound even if there is a lot of noise disturbance.

c. Motives and needs:

Our motives and needs will definitely influence our perception. For example, a hungry person is motivated to recognise only the food items among other articles. His attention cannot be directed towards other things until his motive is satisfied.

d. Cognitive styles:

People are said to differ in the ways they characteristically process the information. Every individual will have his or her own way of understanding the situation. It is said that the people who are flexible will have good attention and they are less affected by interfering influences and to be less dominated by internal needs and motives than or people at the constricted end.

Extrasensory Perception (ESP)

Is there any way of knowing about the world in which the information does not come through the senses? Some people believe that is possible. But there are some instances reported by people that they have experienced some perceptions without the aid of their sense organs. Psychologists have named the perception that occurs without sensory stimulation as ‘Extrasensory perception’ (ESP). This is otherwise known as sixth sense in common man’s view. Some of the common phenomena in ESP are clairvoyance, telepathy, meeting the souls, precognition, psycho-kinesis, reincarnation, etc. Though research is going on, the researchers are unable to confirm them, because these experiences are not repeatable for verification. In many instances they remain as coincidences

Barriers to perception are

1. Selective Perception: We receive a vast amount of information.

Selective perception is also our tendency to choose information that supports our view points; Individuals often ignore information that makes them feel uncomfortable or threatens their view points.

2.      Stereotype: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people. When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereo typing.

Stereo types can be accurate, and when they are accurate, they can be useful perceptual guidelines. However, most of the times stereotypes are inaccurate. Attractiveness is a powerful stereo type. We assume that attractive individuals are also warm, kind, sensitive, poised, sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong.  In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereo types based on gender, age, nationality etc. From a perceptual stand point, if people expect to see this stereo type, that is what they will perceive, whether it's accurate or not.

3.      Halo Effect: The halo error in perception is very similar to stereo typing. Where as in stereo typing the person is perceived according to a single category, under the halo effect the person is perceived on the basis of one trait. When we draw a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability or appearance, a halo effect is operating. Example of halo effect is the extremely attractive women secretary who is perceived by her male boss as being an intelligent, good performer, when, in fact, she is a poor typist.

4.      First-impression error: Individuals place a good deal of importance on first impressions. First impressions are lasting impressions. We tend to remember what we perceive first about a person, and some times we are quite reluctant to change our initial impressions. First - impression error means the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions.

5.      Contrast Effect: Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to be selected for attention than the stimuli that blends in. A contrasting effect can be caused by colour, size or any other factor that is unusual (any factor that distinguishes one stimulus from others at present). Eg, a man walking down the street with a pair of crutches is more attention getting than a common man. Eg. a male students tands out in a crowd of female students. There is nothing unusual about the male students but, when surrounded by females, he stands out.

6.      Projection: It is easy to judge others if we assume they are similar to us. This tendency to attribute one's own characteristics to other people is called projection. Projection can distort perceptions made about others. People who engage in projection tend to perceive others. According to what they they are like rather than according to what the person being observed is really like. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences.

7. Illusion:

Illusion is a false perception. Here the person will mistake a stimulus and perceive it wrongly. For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice. A person standing at a distance who is not known may be perceived as a known person.

Most of our illusions are visual and auditory. But illusions pertaining to other senses are also possible. See Figure 3.10 for some of the examples of visual illusions.

8. 
9.  Hallucination:

Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some stimulus, even when it is not present. This phenomenon is known as hallucination. The person may see an object, person, etc. or he may listen to some voice though there are no objects and sounds in reality.

Usually persons with unsound mind, emotionally disturbed, alcoholics and those who are in confused states may experience hallucinations. However, among abnormal people and intoxicated persons hallucinations are very common.

In addition to these errors, there are some abnormalities in our sense perceptions called anaesthesia (no sensation), hyperesthesia (excessive sensitivity) and paraesthesia (distorted or wrongly localised sensation). In these cases the tactile (skin) sensation is wrongly perceived.

LAWS OF PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION

The process of ‘interpretation of stimulus is known as perception’. So perception involves two processes: sensation interpretation. But interpretation of any stimulus requires past experience also.  Hence, perception may be defined as “a process of interpretation of a present stimulus on the basis of past experience”.

Perception is an integrated approach. It is a synthetic process where different physiological and psychological processes are involved. For example, the accuracy of sense organs, clarity of sensations, mental set of an individual, etc. Otherwise our perception may go wrong.

Principles of Perceptual Organisation

In perceptual process, we select a particular stimulus with our attention and interpret it. In the same way whenever it is necessary, many discrete stimuli in our visual field are organized into a form and perceived more meaningfully than they appear.

This phenomenon was well explained by Gestalt psychologists. They believed that the brain creates a coherent perceptual experience by perceiving a stimulus as a whole than perceiving discrete entities. This is more meaningfully stated in the gestalt principle as ‘the whole is better than sum total of its parts’. This is explained under many sub-principles of perception.

1. Figure-ground Relationship:

According to this principle any figure can be perceived more meaningfully in a background and that figure cannot be separated from that background. For example, letters written with a white chalk piece are perceived clearly in the background of a blackboard.

In the Figure 3.2, two faces can be seen in the background of a white colour. So also the white background can be perceived as a vessel in the background of two faces.

Grouping of Stimuli in Perceptual Organisation

As said above, according to gestalt principle, the objects can be perceived meaningfully when they are grouped together. There are some principles which are followed by us in order to make our perception more meaningful.

They are as follows:

a. Proximity:

Proximity means nearness. The objects which are nearer to each other can be perceived meaningfully by grouping them. For example, the word ‘Man’, here though the letters are discrete, when grouped together gives some meaning. The stars in the Figure 3.3 which are nearer to each other are perceived together as groups/single figure.

b. Similarity:

Stimuli need not be nearer to each other for perception. If there is similarity in these objects, they are grouped together and perceived, even if they are away. For example, in this Figure 3.4 grouping will be done according to similarity, i.e. all circles, squares and triangles are grouped separately.

c. Continuity:

Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape will be perceived as a whole Figure 3.5A and B. For example, (A) in this figure though the curved line is broken, it is perceived as a continuous line, so also straight line is not seen with semicircles but as a continuous line (B) the dots are perceived as existing in the same line of direction continuously.

d. Closure:

When a stimulus is presented with gaps, the human tendency is to perceive that figure as complete one by filling the gaps psychologically. For example, in the Figure 3.6, the gaps are filled psychologically and perceived as letters M and A, circle and a rectangle.

e. Symmetry:

Objects which are having symmetrical shape are perceived as groups. For example, the brackets of different shapes shown in the Figure 3.7 perceived meaningfully, because they are grouped together and perceived as brackets.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY:

This refers to stableness in perception. We have a tendency to perceive the objects as relatively stable and unchanging in shape and size, inspite of a change in the image that we receive.

For example, when we see a person from 5′ distance, the size of the image in our eyes differs from the image of the same person from 100′ distance. Even then we perceive him as the same person. When we see people and houses from the top of hill, the images will be very small like Lillyputs. But we do not get confused by this. We perceive them correctly according to their actual size. Perceptual constancy depends upon several factors like past experience, expectancy, habits, motivations, cognitive styles, learning, imagination, etc.

Types of perceptual constancy:

There are different types of perceptual constancies. They are shape and size, brightness and colour, size constancy, etc.

                  CONCEPT FORMATION

Concept

A concept is a mental image formed by generalizations from particulars. A concept is the basic unit of all types of learning. A concept is a class of stimuli which have common characteristics. The stimuli may be a class of objects, vents or ideas.

Attributes or Characteristics of concepts

1. It stands for a general class and not for a particular object or event.
2. It is a common name given on the basis of similarities found in different objects or events.
3. It is a common disposition that helps in understanding the meaning of the objects perceived earlier.
4. It is the general mental image of the objects or events experienced earlier.
5. Difference in learnability: Some concepts are easily learned than others by children who even have similar cultural experiences and language.
6. Usability: In our daily life, we use some concepts more frequently than others.
7. Validity: Concepts in physical science are well defined than concepts in social sciences
8. Power: There are some fundamental concepts in various disciplines which are necessary to learn in the beginning to understand other concepts. Thus the attribute of power of a concept implies the extent which to a particular concept is essential to the attainment of other concepts.

PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

There are three important phases in the process of concept formation

Perception, Abstraction and generalisation.

1.      Perception: experience or learning in any form is the starting point of the process of concept formation. Our perceptions or imaginary experiences formal or informal learning, provide opportunities for getting mental images of the things persons or events.

2.      Abstractions: The mind analyzes the images formed by perception and synthesizes what is common to all, neglecting what is merely particular. This process of observing similarities and commonness is named as abstraction.

3.      Generalization: After making observation in the form of abstraction, for a number of times, the child is able to generalize the common properties of the objects or vent On account of this generalizations, he will develop a concept about these things or events.

                  ILLUSION

Illusion, a misrepresentation of a “real” sensory stimulus—that is, an interpretation that contradicts objective “reality” as defined by general agreement. For example, a child who perceives tree branches at night as if they are goblins may be said to be having an illusion.

An illusion is a distortion of the senses, which can reveal how the human brain normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. Though illusions distort our perception of reality, they are generally shared by most people

Types of Illusory Experiences

1.      Stimulus-distortion illusions

This type of illusory sense perception arises when the environment changes or warps the stimulus energy on the way to the person, who perceives it in its distorted pattern (as in the case of the “bent” pencil in water

2.      Auditory phenomena

A common phenomenon is the auditory impression that a blowing automobile horn changes its pitch as it passes an observer on a highway. This is known as the Doppler effect,

3.      Optical phenomena

Numerous optical illusions are produced by the refraction (bending) of light as it passes through one substance to another in which the speed of light is significantly different. A ray of light passing from one transparent medium (air) to another (water) is bent as it emerges. Thus, the pencil standing in water seems broken at the surface where the air and water meet; in the same way, a partially submerged log in the water of a swamp gives the illusion of being bent.

Mirage

A mirage in a desert in Africa resembles a shimmering pool of water. The illusion is caused by the refraction (bending) of light in layers of air above the desert's hot surface.

4.      Perceiver-distortion illusions

Some illusions are related to characteristics of the perceiver, namely the functioning of the brain and the senses, rather than to physical phenomena that distort a stimulus. Many common visual illusions are perceptual: they result from the brain’s processing of ambiguous or unusual visual information.

5.      Visual perceptual illusions

Closure (a term used in Gestalt psychology) is the illusion of seeing an incomplete stimulus as though it were whole. Thus, one unconsciously tends to complete (close) a triangle or a square that has a gap in one of its sides.

While a person watches a movie, closure occurs to fill the intervals between what are really rapidly projected still pictures—giving the illusion of uninterrupted motion.

The “figure-ground” illusion is commonly experienced when one gazes at the illustration of a white vase, the outline of which is created by two black profiles. At any moment, one will be able to see either the white vase (in the centre area) as “figure” or the black profiles on each side (in which case the white is seen as “ground”). The fluctuations of figure and ground may occur even without conscious effort. Seeing one aspect usually excludes seeing the other.

Figure 2: Examples of optical illusions. (A) Cube changes orientation. (B) Lines are equal in length. (C) Lines covered by rectangles are straight. (D) All long lines are parallel. (E) Circles are equal in size. (F) Horizontal lines are parallel. (G) Black dots are equal in size. (H) Tops of circles are on a straight line.

The Müller-Lyer illusion is based on the Gestalt principles of convergence and divergence: the lines at the sides seem to lead the eye either inward or outward to create a false impression of length.

6.      Sensory illusions

Many sensory illusions may be described as the aftereffects of the stimulation, or overstimulation, of the senses.

7.      Colour illusions

As one enters a dark room from bright sunshine, the room at first seems quite dark by contrast. A simultaneous contrast occurs when an area of brightness is seen against a less intense or a more intense background. If a gray patch of paper is placed on a black background, it looks whiter than it did before; if placed on a white background, it looks darker.

8.      Weight illusions

Experiments indicated that a second weight feels either heavier or lighter than an immediately preceding identical weight. This illusion results partially from the expectancy of the person doing the lifting. Having lifted the first weight, the subject is “set” for a certain effort on the next try. If the second weight is lifted quickly and easily, it will feel lighter than the first; if it comes up more slowly, it will feel heavier. Expectancy, or set, is also often invoked in efforts to explain the size-weight illusion, in which a large cardboard box feels lighter than a smaller box even though both weigh the same.

9.      Olfactory phenomena

Smell (olfactory) discrimination is influenced by any odour to which the olfactory structures already have adapted. Receptors in the nose, however, adapt quickly and cease to respond to a particular stimulus. This effect is called olfactory fatigue. Thus, an odour that is strong at first will gradually become imperceptible, as happens when one becomes unaware of the smell of one’s own body. There also may be present the phenomenon of masking; this is a decrease in sensitivity to one odour after exposure to another (for example, a strong-smelling disinfectant).

10.  Loudness illusions

The human ear typically serves to distinguish between about 1,500 levels of pitch. When two sounds are heard in close succession, the intensity or loudness of the second is judged by comparing it with the first. Thus, a murmur may sound loud when compared to a whisper, or a “deafening” noise may make all other sounds inaudible. The steady hum of an electric fan may help to diffuse the noises of traffic outside and thus improve the discrimination of sounds in the room.

11.  Tactile illusions

The skin contains numerous “spots” that respond selectively either to cold or to warmth but generally not to both. It can happen, however, that a very warm stimulus will produce a sensation of cold when placed on a spot that responds to cold.

Thus, when a warm stimulus is perceived as cold, the illusion is called paradoxical cold. Paradoxical heat, a less frequent experience, results from stimulating warm and cold spots simultaneously. It appears to be a fusion of warm and paradoxical cold effects, producing a strange, somewhat unpleasant sensation of “heat” that seems to be attended by uneasiness resembling that of pain. The sensation is sometimes called psychological heat.

Sudden temperature contrasts can play tricks on the tactile sense. If hot water is run over one hand and cold water over the other long enough for both to adjust to the temperatures and then both hands are plunged into lukewarm water, the cold hand will feel warm and the hot, cold. It would seem that, in plunging the cold-adapted hand, nerve cells for perceiving cold are suddenly inhibited and those for perceiving heat are suddenly stimulated, while in the heat-adapted hand the reverse takes place.

                  COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS -THINKING, REASONING-PROBLEM SOLVING AND METACOGNITION

Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses processes such as attention, the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and "computation", problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language.

Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.

THINKING

Definition

“Thinking is an implicit problem behavior”- Mohsin

“Thinking is a problem solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in places of overt activity” –Gilmer

“Thinking is behavior which is often hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, concepts are ordinarily employed”. Garrett

Kinds of thinking

1. Perceptual or concrete thinking

It is the simplest form of thinking. The basis of this is perception of actual or concrete objects and events. Small children are benefitted by this thinking.

2. Conceptual thinking or abstract thinking

It does not require the perception of actual objects or events. It is an abstract thinking where one makes us of concepts and generalized ideas. Language plays a big part in conceptual thinking. This type of thinking is a superior type of thinking.

3. Reflective thinking

It is a higher form of thinking. It aims at solving complex problems rather than simple problems. It takes logic into account and finds solution to the problem in hand. There is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.

4. Creative thinking

This type of thinking is chiefly aimed at creating something new. Divergent thinking is known as creative thinking.

5. Convergent thinking: It refers to the ability to put a number of different pieces or perspectives of a topic together in some organized logical manner to find a single answer.   It involves focusing on a finite number of solutions rather than proposing multiple solutions.
6. Sequential thinking or linear thinking : It refers to the ability to process information in orderly prescribed manner. It involves a step by step progression where a response to a step must be obtained before another step is taken.
7. Holistic thinking It refers to the ability to see the big picture and recognize the inter connectedness of various components that form the larger system. It involves expanding your thought process in multiple directions rather than in just one direction and understanding a system by sensing its patterns.
8. Analytical thinking: It refers to the ability to separate a whole into its basic parts in order to examine the parts and their relationships. It involves thinking in a logical step by step manner to break down a larger system of information into its parts.

REASONING

Reasoning is an implicit act and involves problem solving behavior. Reasoning is regarded as the highest form of thinking. It is a complex mental process that needs a well organized brain. It also requires some deliberate efforts on the part of the individual.

Definition

“Reasoning is a step wise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” –Garret

“Reasoning is combining past experiences in order to solve a problem which cannot be solved by mere reproduction of earlier solution” – Munn

Characteristics

1.      Reasoning involves a definite purpose or goals.

2.      One makes use of one’s previous knowledge and experiences in reasoning.

3.      In reasoning , we try to explore mentally the reason or cause of an event or happening.

4.      Like thinking reasoning is highly symbolic function

5.      Reasoning is careful systematic , and organized thinking.

Types of resoninig

1. Inductive reasoning and Deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning: In this we proceed from facts to a general conclusion.  Means from many particular truths or judgement we arrive at universal judgements.

Eg. Ram is mortal

Karim is mortal so all men are mortal

2. Deductive reasoning

In this we proceed from general facts to  particular 

Eg.Allmn are mortal So I am a man Therfore I am a mortal.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is a deliberate act on the part of an individual to overcome the difficulty or obstacle in the path of the attainment of his goal which ultimately results in the satisfaction of his needs. It arises only when the goal is purposeful and essential for the individual.

Definitions of problem solving

According to Skinner  “Problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal”.

Rusk defines “problem solving as planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity for th purpose of finding a satisfactory solution”.

STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Recognition of the problem

First the individual have to be confronted by some specific problem that rquire solution. It may be a theoretical or a practical problem.  The problem should arise out of the felt needs of the learner. He must feel that it is his own problem.

2. Defining the problem: in order to understand the problem, the learner starts analyzing the situation and defines it I definite terms.
3. Collection of relevant data

The investigator is required to collect a  relevant information concerning the problem by all possible means. This will help the individual to widen the span of his knowledge relevant to the problem.

4. Evaluating and organizing data: The collected information is then evaluated properly to identify the essential data which is then organized and classified systematically.
5. Formulation of hypothesis By studying the organized data the investigator tries to think of the various tentative or possible solutions of the problem in hand.
6. Evaluation of hypothesis

The hypothesis formulated are evaluated and weighed one by one. Those hypothesis which are not correct or practicable are discarded and eliminated one by one finally reaching the best solution of the problem.

7. Applying the solution

The best solution thus arrived at is then applied to solve the problem in hand. The valitidty of the inference can be further verified by utilizing it in the solutionof various similar problems.

Role of teacher

1. Help the pupil to locate and select the problem to be solved
2. Create moderate motivation in learner
3. Encourage divergent thinking
4. Present the problem as a whole
5. Guide the pupils in collecting, evaluating and organizing the relevant formation and data about the problem from various sources.
6. Give practice on varying kinds of problems to develop proper mental set in students so that they many transfer the skill in solving problems in future.

METACOGNITION

 The term meta cognition arises from  Greek word meta and the Latin word cognition. Meta means higher or beyond and cognition means thinking. Thus it means that thinking high rot thinking byond. That is, think beyond the normal process of thinking.

This term is introduced by Flavll in 1979 to refer one’s knowledge concerning ones’s  own cognitive process or anything related to them.

Metacognition is the act of thinking about thinking.

Definition

According to Flavell, meta cognition is an individuals’ knowledge of their own cognitive processes and their ability to control these process by organizing, monitoring and modifying them as a function of learning.

Everson defines meta cognition as the awareness individual have of their own mental processes and the subsequent ability to monitor regulate and direct themselves to a desired end.

Characteristics of metacognition

1.      It is higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.

2.      It involves awareness and self regulation of one’s own larning processes.

3.      It includes an awareness and understanding of how on thinks and uses trategies during reading and writing.

4.      It involves knowing how to learn.

5.      It consists of two basic processes occurring simulatenously monitoring one’s progress as he learns, and making changes and adapting one’s strategies if he perceives he is not doing so well.

6.      It is concerned with self reflection, self responsibility and initiative as  well as goal setting and time management.

7.      It involves active control over the cognitive process that is used in larning situations.

Components of Metacogntion

Metacognitive knowledge (meta cognitive awareness) is what individual know about themselves and others as cognitive processors.

Metacognitive regualation is the regulation of cognition and learning experiences through a set of activities that help people control their learning.

Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something to do with the current, ongoing cognitive endeavor.

Importance of metacognition

1. It plays a critical role in successful learning. It is important to study meta cognitive activity and development to determine how students can be taught to better apply their cognitive resources through met cognitive control.
2. Meta cognition helps readers monitor and control their comprehension on an ongoing basis and adjust their reading strategies to maximize comprehension.
3. This is the process where the student takes conscious control of the learning. The learner thinks about how he is thinking in a cognitive sense.
4. It is the foundation upon which the students become independent readers and writers. It also underlies student’s abilities to generalize maths problem solving strategies.
5. It motivates the learner. It helps to maintain motivation to complete a learning task.
6. It helps the learner to advance in a planned manner in his learning activities.
7. It reduces mental fatigue helps the learner in effective memorization and longer retention.
8. It helps the learner to set priorities manage time and effective utilization  of resources
9. Helps to gain confidence and become more independent learner.
10. Helps the learner to realize that he can pursue his own intellectual needs and discover a world of information at his fingertips
11. Thinking of one’s own cognition will assist him in planning the way to approach a learning task monitoring comprehension and evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task.
12. Metacognition enables the learner to monitor and direct their own learning processes
13. It helps the learner to become a person who has learned to learn.
14. Students who demonstrate a wide range of metacognitive skills perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently.
15. Individuals with a high level of meta cognitive knowledge and skill identify blocks to learning as early as possible and change tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment.

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

There are normally three levels of metacognitive strategies for effective learning

They are awareness, planning,  monitoring and reflection

Awareness

1.      Consciously identify what you already know

2.      Define the learning goal

3.      Consider your personal resources (textbooks, computer,  access to the library, access to a quiet study area,

4.      Consider the task reqirements (essay test, mcq etc)

5.      determine how your performance will be evaluated consider your motivational level,

6.      determine your level of anxiety

Planning

1.      estimate the time required to complete the task

2.       plan study time into your schedule and set priorities,

3.       make checklist of what needs to happen when

4.      organize materials

5.       take the necessary steps to learn by using strategies like outlining mnemonics diagramming etc.

Monitoring and reflection

1.      Reflect on the learning process, keeping track of what works and what doesn’t work for you

2.      monitor your own learning by questioning and self tsting.

3.      Provide your own feedback

4.      Keep concentration and motivation high.  

                  MEMORY- CONCEPT; TYPES & STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP MEMORY

Remembering is the ability of th human mind to store what have been previously learned and to reproduce it after some time. It is defined as the power of keeping facts in the conscious mind and of being able to call them back at will.

According to Ryburn, memory is the power of a person to store experiences and to bring them into the field of consciousness sometimes after the experiences have occurred.

Remembering is a complex process which involves four factors

Learning retention recall and recognition

A person is said to have good memory when he has an ability to learn something easily, to retain it for long time, to recognize and recall it accurately and lastly to make proper learning or experience

Types of memory

·         Sensory Memory

It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained accurately, but very briefly. For example, the ability to look at something and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation is an example of sensory memory. Although sensory memory has a large capacity, it corresponds approximately to the initial 200-500 milliseconds after an item is perceived.

 A simple example of sensory memory is to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorization. Degradation of this kind of memory is remarkably quick, as this type of memory stores information as it senses, regardless of the body’s consciousness.

·         Short-Term Memory

It’s a primary or active memory that is capable of holding small amount of information for a brief period of time. This form of memory is capable of storing information for 30 seconds or even less without rehearsal. Rehearsal and Chunking are two basic methods that can be used to prevent the eradication of information, and the information can be then switched from Short-Term Memory (STM) to Long-Term Memory. The term working memory is often used interchangeably with short-term memory, although technically working memory refers more to the whole theoretical framework of structures and processes used for the temporary storage and manipulation of information, of which short-term memory is just one component.

·         Long-Term Memory

This form of memory is a memory store capable of storing large quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration. Basic idea of memory in a mass is usually mistaken with Long-Term Memory alone. Long-term memory is, obviously enough, intended for storage of information over a long period of time. Despite our everyday impressions of forgetting, it seems likely that long-term memory actually decays very little over time, and can store a seemingly unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely. Short-term memories can become long-term memory through the process of consolidation, involving rehearsal and meaningful association. Unlike short-term memory (which relies mostly on an acoustic, and to a lesser extent a visual, code for storing information), long-term memory encodes information for storage semantically (i.e. based on meaning and association). However, there is also some evidence that long-term memory does also encode to some extent by sound. For example, when we cannot quite remember a word but it is “on the tip of the tongue”, this is usually based on the sound of a word, not its meaning.

Long-term memory is often divided into two further main types: explicit (or declarative) memory and implicit (or procedural) memory.

Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is memory of facts and events, and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled (or "declared"). It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved, although it is more properly a subset of explicit memory. Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into episodic memory and semantic memory.

Procedural memory (“knowing how”) is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things, particularly the use of objects or movements of the body, such as tying a shoelace, playing a guitar or riding a bike. These memories are typically acquired through repetition and practice, and are composed of automatic sensorimotor  behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of them. Once learned, these "body memories" allow us to carry out ordinary motor actions more or less automatically. Procedural memory, which is a subset of implicit memory, is a part of the long-term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills.  You don't have to delve into your memory to recall how to walk each time you take a step.

Some examples of procedural memory:

·         Playing piano

·         Ice skating

·         Playing tennis

·         Swimming

·         Climbing stairs

Implicit memory

Procedural memory is sometimes referred to as implicit memory, because previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without explicit and conscious awareness of these previous experiences, although it is more properly a subset of implicit memory. Musicians and professional athletes are said to have superior ability to form procedural memories.

While implicit memory requires little if any effort to recall, explicit memory— sometimes referred to as declarative memory — requires a more concerted effort to bring the surface. Declarative memory involves both semantic and episodic memory.

While most people can tick off the days of the week from the time they are in grade school — which is implicit memory — it takes explicit memory to remember that your mother's birthday is next Wednesday.

Semantic memory is not connected to personal experience. Semantic memory includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of states, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts that are not in question.

Some examples of semantic memory include:

·         Knowledge that the sky is blue

·         Knowing how to use a knife and fork

·         Remembering what dog is

·         Recalling that President Kennedy was assassinated on Nov. 22, 1963

Episodic memory is a person's unique recollections of a specific event or an episode. People are usually able to associate particular details with an episodic memory, such as how they felt, the time and place, and other particulars. It is not clear as to why some memories of events in our lives are committed to memory, while others don't get recorded, but researchers believe that emotions play a critical role in what we remember.

Some examples of episodic memory:

·         Where you were and the people you were with when you found out about the Challenger space shuttle disaster

·         Your beach vacation last summer

·         The first time you traveled by plane

·         Your first day at a new job

Autobiographical memory is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.^[1] It is thus a type of explicit memory.

Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visualexperience. We are able to place in memory visualinformation which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image.

Eidetic memory : sometimes called photographic memory) is an ability to recall images from memory vividly after only a few instances of exposure, with high precision for a brief time after exposure,^[1] without using a mnemonic device. Although the terms eidetic memory and photographic memory are popularly used interchangeably, they are also distinguished, with eidetic memory referring to the ability to view memories like photographs for a few minutes, and photographic memory referring to the ability to recall pages of text or numbers, or similar, in great detail. When the concepts are distinguished, eidetic memory is reported to occur in a small number of children and as something generally not found in adults, while true photographic memory has never been demonstrated to exist.

                  STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP MEMORY

1. Recitation method

Reads , rcalls without looking at theat material. Learnr evaluates himself from time to time and notes the points which he has been unable to recall.

2. Whole and part method

One has to read the matter again from the beginning to the end in one stretch and studying it is known as whole method

When it is divided into certain parts and studying it is known as part method.

3. Spaced and un spaced method ;

Giving time interval and studying it is known as spaced and un spaced is giving time to it.

4. Grouping and rhythm
5. Follow principle of association
6. Overlearning
7. Learn from general to specific
8. Make it meaningful
9. Visualize relationships
10. Distribute learning
11. Use mnemonic technique

Mnemonics are memory aids and it is the technique of assisting the memory by using a system of artificial aids such as rhythms, sentences diagrams, acronyms, numbers tc to help in the recall of names dates facts and figures. 

12. Chunking

Atkinson-Shriffin Model

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shriffin in 1968 created a memory modal, also called Multi-Store Model, which is comprised of three stages from Sensory, Short-Term and Long-Term Memory. This concept defines as three individual stages rather than a “whole” unitary process. It is also widely known as Process of Memory.

The above figure clearly illustrates how an incoming memory works through different stages of memory to be imprinted as a part of us.

Sensory memory. It stores information that has just been perceived. This particularly rfrs to information that has not yet been attended to or has not yet reached the consciousness of the person and has not yet been stored in short term memory. These images last only milliseconds. There are two types of sensory memory

Iconic -visual memory which refers to the holding of an image that has been visually perceived.

Echoic – auditory memory refers to the representation of sounds that have been perceived.

Short term memory STM: It is a memory system that holds limited amount ofinformationforrelativly short periods of time STM is also called working memory and related to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time.  It contains new information and also information that has been retrieved from LTM

It lasts seconds or at the most minutes

Long term memory LTM

It is a memory system for the retention of large amounts of information overlong periods of time. LTM is more stable than STM. It is the final storing house of memory.

It generates rather than reproduces ie it is affected by perception and interpretation iofth individual who is remembering.

The individual remembers according to schemata or scripts.

It is influenced by understanding what has been perceived.

In this model, memory starts with a sensory input from the environment. This input is held for a brief time in sensory register associated with the sensory channel. Information that us attended to and recognized in the sensory rgistr may be passed on to STM where it is held for 20 to 30 seconds.

If it is rehearsed it passed to LTM and it is organized into categories where they reside for days, months years or for a life time

Sensory register: SR

It refers to the storage of information for very brief time. If it is not rehearsed it will simply decay however if w pay attention to and recognize some of the information in the seeonsory register, it is passed to STM for further processing.

                  FORGETTING- CAUSES AND PROBLEMS

Forgetting is the loss of ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier. It is the failure of the individual to revive in consciousness an idea or group of ideas without the help of the original stimulus.

Kinds of forgetting

There are two categories of forgetting

1. Passive or natural forgetting In this there is no intention of forgetting on the part of the individual. Eg. We forget many things with time lapse.

2. Active or morbid forgetting: In this the individual deliberately tries to forget something. Eg. We make deliberate efforts to forget the bitter experiences of life.

Causes of forgetting

1.      Inadequate impression

2.      Lapse of time

3.      Interference of new knowledge

4.      Repression

5.      Emotional disturbances

6.      Alternation of stimulus condition

7.      Low IQ and braininjury

8.      Meaninglessness of the content

9.      Lack of exercise

10.  Mental conflict

11.  Mental shock

12.  Lack of learning

13.  Methods of learning

INTERFERENCES

Mc Geoch in 1932 argued that interference is the major factor that leads to forgetting. Interference is the phenomenon by which recall is hindered because of other information in memory which blocks the information to be remembered. There are two types

1. Proactive inhibition Proactive means acts forward. Proactive inhibition refers to the interference with the learning of new information by information previously entered into memory. It occurs when old learning interfered with the recall of new learning. Here the new information is lost because it is mixed up with previous leaned similar information.eg. a boy learns the spelling of the word ‘queue’. He learns it recalls it correctly. He afterwards learns the spelling of the word queen later he wants to writ the word queen instead of queen he wrote it as queueen. Here the previously learned word interfered with the work learned latter.

2.Retro active inhibition

Retroactive means acts backwards. Retroactive inhibition refrs to the interference with retention oif information already present in memory by new information bing learned. ?it occurs when new learning interferes with the recall of old learning. Here the previously leaned information is lost because it is mixed up with the new and somewhat similiar information. For example a boy learns the spelling of the word RABBIT he learns it and recall the spelling correctly. Then he learns the spelling of another word HABIT and later on when he wants to write rabbit he wrote it as RABIT here the learning of the word habit interfered with the retention of previously learned word rabbit.

CURVE OF FORGETTING

Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to study the forgetting behavior in an experimental, scientific way.

Ebbinghaus (1913) conducted pioneering experimental research on memory. As a result of experiments which involved using sets of items to be committed to memory that had no previous associations, he produced a now-famous curve summarizing his findings. With time since learning session on the x-axis and percentage of recall on the y-axis, a plot of the following numbers can be used to show the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve:

Using himself as a subject of study he memorized a list of three letter nonsense syllables meaningless sets of two consonants. He tested at an interval of 20 minutes to a month and find out that th percentage of material forgotten with a lapse of time is plotted on a graph paper. The curve obtained by plotting the amount forgotten as a function of time was named by him as curv of forgetting.

He found that the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first nine hours after exposure to a new material. However the rate of forgetting then slows down and declines very little even after many days have passed.

Educational implications

1. To get familiar with the individual differences in retention and forgetting among his students.
2. Helps the teacher to suggest best suited learning methods for the effctive retention of the material.
3. It gives the teacher as well as the learner the opportunity of self appraisal.
4. A comparison of the curves of forgetting for different school subjects will help the learner in framing the schedule of learning allotting more time for those subjects where rate of forgetting is more.
5. This will help the teacher in providing educational guidance to individual learner.
6. It will help the teacher to select appropriate teaching aid and stratgies to ensure longer retention of the material presented to the learner.
7. Curve of forgetting will help the researcher to study the influence of various independent variable associated with the learning task and the learning situation on the retention of a learned material.

                  Cognitive neuroscience- basic concepts and relevance in learning

The term cognitive neuroscience was coined by George Armitage Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in year 1976. Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience.^[3] Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology, and computational modeling Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from neuroscience and psychology.^[4] There were several stages in these disciplines that changed the way researchers approached their investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established.