UNIT I NATURE OF LEARNING
Factors affecting learning - learner,
Method and Task variables
Learning curve
Plateau in learning
Study habits- Concept and methods,
Transfer of Learning.
Motivation- Concept, Types, strategies
& educational Implications.
Theory of motivation- Abraham Maslow,
Achievement motivation
MEANING,
DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
MEANING
Learning is a key process in human
behaviour. The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the
environment. This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in
order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in
behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. The skills, knowledge, habits,
attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics are all the result
of learning.
DEFINITION
OF LEARNING
Learning is defined as
1. “Learning is the
relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to
experience. This definition has three components: 1) the duration of the change
is long-term rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the change is the content
and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner; 3) the
cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than
fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention.”
–From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E. Mayer
–From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E. Mayer
2. Learning is the process of acquiring new, or modifying
existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences.
3.
Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes- Crow and
Crow
All learning involves activities. These
activities involve either physical or mental activities. They may be simple
mental activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also
the mental activities may be very simple involving one or two activities of
mind or complex which involve higher mental activities.
Types of Learning
1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our
day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in
order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating,
driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the
language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols,
words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use
words for communication.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which
requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence,
etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog
and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular
animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and
generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying
things.
4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between
stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called
discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus,
car, ambulance, etc.
5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles
related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work
effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more
concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning
process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as
thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is
very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which
determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our
childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may
be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of
nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
- Learning involves all those
experiences and training of an individual which help him to produce
changes in his behaviour.
- It involves modification of
behaviour through practice and experiences.
- Learning is the process of
progressive adjustment and adaptation to ever changing physical as well as
social environment.
- It is a continuous life-long
process.
- It is the acquisition of
habits, knowledge and attitudes.
- It is the process of
development.
- It is both formal and informal
process.
- Learning brings progressive
changes in the behaviour of an individual as a result of which the
individual gets himself adjusted to the changing situation.
- Learning requires maturation as
a pre requisite.
- All learning is goal directed.
It is the goal that motivates the learner to learn.
FACTORS
AFFECTING LEARNING
Or
VARIABLES
IN LEARNING
There are three kinds of variables in learning
A. Individual variables(nature of learner)
B. Task Variables (Nature of learning material)
C. Method Variable(Nature of learning situation)
A. INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES(NATURE OF
LEARNER)
1. Maturation
The rate of learning will be greatest when the maturation is
most favourable.
2. Readiness to learn
It is the capacity and willingness to learn. Leaning takes
place only when a learner is ready to do
3.Age
The ability to learn new material increases till 20, remains
constant for 30 and declines rapidly after 50
4. Sex
Boys excel in learning of motor skills involving the
exercise of strong gross muscles, whereas girls do better in skills requiring
delicate co-ordination of smaller muscles and strict attention to details.
5. Previous experience
6. Mental abilities
Mental abilities like intelligence, aptitude, creativity,
imagination, thinking, reasoning etc affects learning.
7. Physical handicaps
The defects of vision, hearing, speech etc tend to affect an
individual’s learning adversely.
B. TASK VARIABLES(Nature of learning
Materials)
1. Length of the task
If the length of the learning materials exceeds the memory
span of the learner, the time taken to learn will be more.
2. Difficulty of the task
Learner has to take more time to learn if the material
3. Meaningfulness of the task
C. METHOD VARIABLES (Nature of
learning situation)
1. Method of learning
Learning success
depends upon whether the learner is adopted the whole or part method. If the
unit for study is meaningful and compact the whole method is better. But the
part themselves are more closely integrated than the whole, the part method may
work well.
2. Amount of practice
Retention increases
with practice.
3. Distribution of
practice
Spaced is sometimes
better. Distributed practice helps in removing the monotony of long periods.
4. Availability of
incentives
Knowledge of result
acts as a strong incentive to learning. Pupils who are promptly informed of
their improvement make satisfactory progress in their studies.
5. Nature of sensory
approach
Senses are the gateways
of knowledge. Effectiveness of learning depends upon the number of senses
involved in the learning process. Hence a multi sensory approach can cause
better learning.
LEARNING
CURVE
A
learning curve is a graphical representation of how learning takes place in a
particular situation. It is a graph plotting the course of learning in which X
axis represents some measures of practice and Yaxis represents a measure of
proficiency.
Four
types of learning curves are there
1.
Straight line curve
This shows a constant
or uniform rate of progress in learning
2.
convex curve
It is a negatively
accelerated curve which shows rapid initial improvement in larning that slow
down with time.
3.
Concave Curve
It is a positively
accelerated curve which shows slow initial improvement in learning that
increases with time ultimately lading towards the mastery over the learning material.
Concave-convex
curve
It is a S shaped
learning curve formed by the combination of a concave and a convex curve
depending on rapid or slow initial success followed by a reverse condition
in learning.
Uses
of learning curves
- Learning curve helps the teacher to
acquaint himself with the individual differences in learning among his
students.
- It helps the teacher to improve the
method of learning
- It provides him the opportunity of
self appraisal.
- It helps the teacher to understand
the emotional life and other personality characteristics of the learner.
- Curve of learning helps the teacher
to select appropriate teaching aids.
- Learning curve helps the teacher to
maintain a proper account of the regular progress of his students.
- It helps the students to acquaint
themselves with their own progress.
- It helps the teacher to compare the
progress of a student with that of other students ion the class.
PLATEAU IN LEARNING
It
is a long, flat horizontal stretch in the learning curve which represents a
stationary stage where apparently in progress in learning is recorded.
Here
the line falls parallel to x axis. So no progress is recorded here.
Causes of learning
plateau
- The learner may
become bored or lose interest after the initial excitement of a new topic.
- Poor or faulty
method of teaching
- Physical or mental
fatigue
- Lack of proper
motivation
- Too much
difficulty and complexity of the task
- The conflict
of previous learning with the new
learning
- Transition from a
lower to higher level of performance
- Poor or
unfavourable environment and working conditions
- Mental or physical
illness of the learner
- Distraction of
attention
Elimination
of learning plateaus
1.
Adopt efficient methods
of teaching
2.
Helps to select the
children the appropriate methods of learning
3.
Acquainting the learner
with clear cut goals or aims of the work in hand
4.
Arouse and maintain
interest
5.
Arrange the learning
material according to the increasing level of difficulty or complexity
6.
Suggest the learner to
discontinue practice for th time being when a period of no improvement is
reached.
7.
Minimizing the
distracting factors present in the learning environment.
8.
Providing sufficient
motivation and incentive.
STUDY
HABITS- CONCEPT AND METHODS
Study skills, academic skill, or study
strategies are approaches applied by the students to learning. It
gives success in school for acquiring good grades, and useful for learning
throughout one's life. Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the
process of organizing and taking in new information, retaining information, or
dealing with assessments.
They include mnemonics, which aid the retention of lists of information;
effective reading; concentration techniques; and efficient notetaking.
Different types of learners and
their study habits
- visual
learners learn best when pictures, images, and spatial understanding is
used.
- Auditory
learners prefer using music, sounds or both.
- Kinesthetic
learners prefer a more physical style of learning through using the body,
sense of touch and hands.
- Logical
learners desire to use reasoning, logic and systems.
- Verbal
learners will prefer using words in writing and speech.
- Social
learners will prefer to learn with other people or in groups.
- Solitary
learners are able to learn best alone.
DIFFERENT STUDY HABITS FOR STUDENTS
TO HAVE SUCCESS IN ACADEMICS
1. Establish a study area at home.
- Communicate
with the teacher.
- Keep
assignments organized.
- Take
notes in class.
- Highlight
key concepts in the reading materials.
- Prepare
your bookbag before going to bed.
- Don't
attempt to cram all your studying into one session.
- Plan
when you're going to study.
- Study
at the same time.
- Each
study time should have a specific goal.
- Never
procrastinate your planned study session.
- Start
with the most difficult subject first.
- Always
review your notes before starting an assignment.
- Make
sure you're not distracted while you're studying.
- Use
study groups effectively.
- Review
your notes, schoolwork and other class materials over the weekend.
TRANSFER
OF LEARNING.
Transfer
of learning may be defined as carry over of knowledge, habits and skills
acquired in one situation to another. It is process of extending and applying
behaviour. Transfer of learning occurs when the persons’s learning in one
situation influences his learning and perfrormance in another situation.
According
to Ellis, transfer of learning means that experiences or performance on task
influences performance on some subsequent tasks.
TYPES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING
There
are three types of transfer of learning
1. Positive transfer
Positive transfer of learning takes place when
the learning of a particular task facilitates the subsequent learning of
another task. Means learning in one situation facilitates the learning in
another situation. For example, skills
in playing violin facilitate learning to play piano. Knowledge of mathematics
facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving a scooter facilitates driving
a motorbike.
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the
learning of another task harder- it is known as negative transfer. For example,
speaking Telugu hindering the learning of Malayalam. Left hand drive vehicles
hindering the learning of right hand drive.
3. Neutral transfer or
zero transfer
When learning of one activity neither
facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is a case of neutral
transfer. It is also called as zero transfer.
For example, knowledge of history in
no way affects learning of driving a car or a scooter.
Another types of transfer of
learning are
1. Lateral transfer
This
is the common form of transfer. Eg. If a student learns addition and
substraction in class, then he can transfer it to other situation.
2.
Sequential transfer
The
contents of subjects of school curriculum are divided into sequential units.
One idea leads to other and both ideas have some relations to the third idea to
be taught.
3. Horizontal transfer
Lateral
and sequential transfers are called horizontal for the learner is within the
same behavioral category in making the transfer.
4.
Vertical transfer
It
imples facilitating the higher behaviour in vertical manner by the lower level
of learning.
5. Bilateral transfer
This
type takes place when training imparted to one lateral automatically transfers
to another. Training in the use of pen by the right hand transfer training to
the left hand.
Theories of Transfer of
Learning:
There are two important theories
which explain transfer of learning. These are known as modern theories.
1. Theory of identical
elements:
This theory has been developed by
E.L.Thorndike. According to him most of transfer occurs from one situation to
another in which there are most similar or identical elements.
This theory explains that carrying
over from one situation to another is roughly proportional to the degree of
resemblance in situation, in other words- more the similarity, more the
transfer.
The degree of transfer increases as
the similarity of elements increase.
For example, learning to ride moped
is easy after learning to ride a bicycle. Here, transfer is very fast because
of identical elements in both vehicles.
Thorndike was convinced that the
method used in guiding a pupil’s learning activities had a great effect upon the degree of
transferability of his learning.
2. Theory of generalization of
experience:
This theory was developed by Charles
Judd, 1908. Theory of generalization assumes that what is learnt in task ‘A’
transfers to task ‘B’, because in studying ‘A’, the learner develops a general
principle which applies in part or completely in both ‘A’ and ‘B’.
Experiences, habits, knowledge
gained in one situation help us to the extent to which they can be generalized
and applied to another situation. Generalization consists of perceiving and
understanding what is common to a number of situations. The ability of
individuals to generalize knowledge varies with the degree of their
intelligence.
3. Theory of Formal discipline or
mental discipline (faculty theory)
According
to faculty theory, mind is composed of so many independent faculties like
memory, attention, imagination reasoning, judgments etc. These faculties can be
strengthened through exercise or practice. Such properly strengthened faculties
later on function automatically in all situation and area in which they
involved.
4. Theory of ideals
W.C.
Bagley asserted that transfer occurs if they are regarded of some value as
desirable. If it is given an emotional sanction, or to be elevated to a plane
of an ideal worth living for. Thus the teacher should consciously seek maximum
transfer values by emphasizing ideals of neatness, of love, of learning,
tolerance for differences of opinions and so on.
5. Gestalt or relationship theory
According
to Gestalt psychologists, transfer of learning means that generalizations,
concepts or insights which are developed
in one learning situation are employed as a whole in other situations in which
they are applicable. Pupil must perceive
the relationships between two situations, must understand that the
generalizations gained through past experiences are appropriate to the new
situations and must have the desire to use the generalizations and to benefit
by the perceived commonality.
MOTIVATION-
CONCEPT, TYPES, STRATEGIES & EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
Motivation
originated from a Latin word motum which means motion. Motivation is the
process of arousing or initiating movement in the organism. Motivation is some
thing which prompts, compels and energizes an individual to act in a particular
time for attaining some specific goals.
According
to Sorenson, motivation as a psychological and physiological condition that
causes one to expand effort to satisfy needs and wants
In
short, motivations is the activating force that pushes or pulls an individual
tp move on or act for achieving a specific goal.
KINDS OF MOTIVATION
1. Intrinsic motivation
2. extrinsic motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation ( natural
motivation)
It
refers to a force within the individuals and works from within the individual. Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in
a behavior because it is personally rewarding; essentially, performing an
activity for its own sake rather than the desire for some external reward.
Essentially, the behavior itself is its own reward. It is directly linked with
the natural instincts, urges and impulses of the organisms.
2. Extrinsic motivation (
Artificial motivation)
Extrinsic motivation occurs when we are motivated to perform
a behavior or engage in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. The
individual engage in a behavior not because of enjoying it or because you find
it satisfying, but in order to get something in return or avoid something
unpleasant. Working for a better grade and doing home work forfear ofpunishment
are examples of activities which are extrinsically motivatd. It is provided by
incentives and hence it is also called insentive motivation. Praise, blame,
rewards, punishments, marks competitions etc are examples of extrinsic
motivation.
Extrinsic Motivation
·
Participating
in a sport to win awards
·
Cleaning
your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents
·
Competing
in a contest to win a scholarship
·
Studying
because you want to get a good grade
Intrinsic Motivation
·
Participating
in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable
·
Cleaning
your room because you like tidying up
·
Solving a
word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and exciting
·
Studying a
subject you find fascinating
STRATEGIES OF MOTIVATION
Allow students to have some choice and control over what
happens in the class room. For example, allowing students to choose the type of
assignment they do or which problems to work on can give them a sense of
control that may just motivate them to do more.
2. Define the
objectives.
It can be very frustrating for students to complete an assignment or even to behave in class if there aren’t clearly defined objectives. Students want and need to know what is expected of them in order to stay motivated to work. At the beginning of the year, lay out clear objectives, rules, and expectations of students so that there is no confusion and students have goals to work towards.
It can be very frustrating for students to complete an assignment or even to behave in class if there aren’t clearly defined objectives. Students want and need to know what is expected of them in order to stay motivated to work. At the beginning of the year, lay out clear objectives, rules, and expectations of students so that there is no confusion and students have goals to work towards.
3. Create a
threat-free environment.
When teachers create a safe, supportive environment for students, affirming their belief in a student’s abilities rather than laying out the consequences of not doing things, students are much more likely to get and stay motivated to do their work. At the end of the day, students will fulfill the expectations that the adults around them communicate, so focus on can, not can’t.
When teachers create a safe, supportive environment for students, affirming their belief in a student’s abilities rather than laying out the consequences of not doing things, students are much more likely to get and stay motivated to do their work. At the end of the day, students will fulfill the expectations that the adults around them communicate, so focus on can, not can’t.
4. Change your
scenery.
A classroom is a great place for learning, but sitting at a desk day in and day out can make school start to seem a bit dull for some students. To renew interest in the subject matter or just in learning in general, give your students a chance to get out of the classroom. Take field trips, bring in speakers, or even just head to the library for some research. The brain loves novelty and a new setting can be just what some students need to stay motivated to learn.
A classroom is a great place for learning, but sitting at a desk day in and day out can make school start to seem a bit dull for some students. To renew interest in the subject matter or just in learning in general, give your students a chance to get out of the classroom. Take field trips, bring in speakers, or even just head to the library for some research. The brain loves novelty and a new setting can be just what some students need to stay motivated to learn.
Not
all students will respond to lessons in the same way. For some, hands-on
experiences may be the best. Others may love to read books quietly or to work
in groups. In order to keep all students motivated, mix up your lessons so that
students with different preferences will each get time focused on the things
they like best. Doing so will help students stay engaged and pay attention.
6. Use positive
competition.
Competition in the classroom isn’t always a bad thing, and in some cases can motivate students to try harder and work to excel. Work to foster a friendly spirit of competition in your classroom, perhaps through group games related to the material or other opportunities for students to show off their knowledge.
Competition in the classroom isn’t always a bad thing, and in some cases can motivate students to try harder and work to excel. Work to foster a friendly spirit of competition in your classroom, perhaps through group games related to the material or other opportunities for students to show off their knowledge.
7. Offer rewards.
Everyone likes getting rewards, and offering your students the chance to earn them is an excellent source of motivation. Things like pizza parties, watching movies, or even something as simple as a sticker on a paper can make students work harder and really aim to achieve. Consider the personalities and needs of your students to determine appropriate rewards for your class.
Everyone likes getting rewards, and offering your students the chance to earn them is an excellent source of motivation. Things like pizza parties, watching movies, or even something as simple as a sticker on a paper can make students work harder and really aim to achieve. Consider the personalities and needs of your students to determine appropriate rewards for your class.
8. Give students
responsibility.
Assigning students classroom jobs is a great way to build a community and to give students a sense of motivation. Most students will see classroom jobs as a privilege rather than a burden and will work hard to ensure that they, and other students, are meeting expectations. It can also be useful to allow students to take turns leading activities or helping out so that each feels important and valued.
Assigning students classroom jobs is a great way to build a community and to give students a sense of motivation. Most students will see classroom jobs as a privilege rather than a burden and will work hard to ensure that they, and other students, are meeting expectations. It can also be useful to allow students to take turns leading activities or helping out so that each feels important and valued.
9. Allow
students to work together.
While not all students will jump at the chance to work in groups, many will find it fun to try to solve problems, do experiments, and work on projects with other students. The social interaction can get them excited about things in the classroom and students can motivate one another to reach a goal. Teachers need to ensure that groups are balanced and fair, however, so that some students aren’t doing more work than others.
While not all students will jump at the chance to work in groups, many will find it fun to try to solve problems, do experiments, and work on projects with other students. The social interaction can get them excited about things in the classroom and students can motivate one another to reach a goal. Teachers need to ensure that groups are balanced and fair, however, so that some students aren’t doing more work than others.
10. Give praise
when earned.
There is no other form of motivation that works quite as well as encouragement. Even as adults we crave recognition and praise, and students at any age are no exception. Teachers can give students a bounty of motivation by rewarding success publicly, giving praise for a job well done, and sharing exemplary work.
There is no other form of motivation that works quite as well as encouragement. Even as adults we crave recognition and praise, and students at any age are no exception. Teachers can give students a bounty of motivation by rewarding success publicly, giving praise for a job well done, and sharing exemplary work.
11. Encourage
self-reflection.
Most kids want to succeed, they just need help figuring out what they need to do in order to get there. One way to motivate your students is to get them to take a hard look at themselves and determine their own strengths and weaknesses. Students are often much more motivated by creating these kinds of critiques of themselves than by having a teacher do it for them, as it makes them feel in charge of creating their own objectives and goals.
Most kids want to succeed, they just need help figuring out what they need to do in order to get there. One way to motivate your students is to get them to take a hard look at themselves and determine their own strengths and weaknesses. Students are often much more motivated by creating these kinds of critiques of themselves than by having a teacher do it for them, as it makes them feel in charge of creating their own objectives and goals.
12. Be excited.
One of the best ways to get your students motivated is to share your enthusiasm. When you’re excited about teaching, they’ll be much more excited about learning. It’s that simple.
One of the best ways to get your students motivated is to share your enthusiasm. When you’re excited about teaching, they’ll be much more excited about learning. It’s that simple.
13. Know your
students.
Getting to know your students is about more than just memorizing their names. Students need to know that their teacher has a genuine interest in them and cares about them and their success. When students feel appreciated it creates a safe learning environment and motivates them to work harder, as they want to get praise and good feedback from someone they feel knows and respects them as individuals.
Getting to know your students is about more than just memorizing their names. Students need to know that their teacher has a genuine interest in them and cares about them and their success. When students feel appreciated it creates a safe learning environment and motivates them to work harder, as they want to get praise and good feedback from someone they feel knows and respects them as individuals.
14. Harness
student interests.
Knowing your students also has some other benefits, namely that it allows you to relate classroom material to things that students are interested in or have experienced. Teachers can use these interests to make things more interesting and relatable to students, keeping students motivated for longer.
Knowing your students also has some other benefits, namely that it allows you to relate classroom material to things that students are interested in or have experienced. Teachers can use these interests to make things more interesting and relatable to students, keeping students motivated for longer.
15. Help students
find intrinsic motivation.
It can be great to help students get motivated, but at the end of the day they need to be able to generate their own motivation. Helping students find their own personal reasons for doing class work and working hard, whether because they find material interesting, want to go to college, or just love to learn, is one of the most powerful gifts you can give them.
It can be great to help students get motivated, but at the end of the day they need to be able to generate their own motivation. Helping students find their own personal reasons for doing class work and working hard, whether because they find material interesting, want to go to college, or just love to learn, is one of the most powerful gifts you can give them.
16. Manage student anxiety.
Some students find the prospect of not doing well so anxiety-inducing that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. For these students, teachers may find that they are most motivated by learning that struggling with a subject isn’t the end of the world. Offer support no matter what the end result is and ensure that students don’t feel so overwhelmed by expectations that they just give up.
Some students find the prospect of not doing well so anxiety-inducing that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. For these students, teachers may find that they are most motivated by learning that struggling with a subject isn’t the end of the world. Offer support no matter what the end result is and ensure that students don’t feel so overwhelmed by expectations that they just give up.
17. Make goals
high but attainable.
If you’re not pushing your students to do more than the bare minimum, most won’t seek to push themselves on their own. Students like to be challenged and will work to achieve high expectations so long as they believe those goals to be within their reach, so don’t be afraid to push students to get more out of them.
If you’re not pushing your students to do more than the bare minimum, most won’t seek to push themselves on their own. Students like to be challenged and will work to achieve high expectations so long as they believe those goals to be within their reach, so don’t be afraid to push students to get more out of them.
18. Give feedback
and offer chances to improve.
Students who struggle with class work can sometimes feel frustrated and get down on themselves, draining motivation. In these situations it’s critical that teachers help students to learn exactly where they went wrong and how they can improve next time. Figuring out a method to get where students want to be can also help them to stay motivated to work hard.
Students who struggle with class work can sometimes feel frustrated and get down on themselves, draining motivation. In these situations it’s critical that teachers help students to learn exactly where they went wrong and how they can improve next time. Figuring out a method to get where students want to be can also help them to stay motivated to work hard.
19. Track
progress.
It can be hard for students to see just how far they’ve come, especially with subjects that are difficult for them. Tracking can come in handy in the classroom, not only for teachers but also for students. Teachers can use this as a way to motivate students, allowing them to see visually just how much they are learning and improving as the year goes on.
It can be hard for students to see just how far they’ve come, especially with subjects that are difficult for them. Tracking can come in handy in the classroom, not only for teachers but also for students. Teachers can use this as a way to motivate students, allowing them to see visually just how much they are learning and improving as the year goes on.
20. Make things
fun.
Not all class work needs to be a game or a good time, but students who see school as a place where they can have fun will be more motivated to pay attention and do the work that’s required of them than those who regard it as a chore. Adding fun activities into your school day can help students who struggle to stay engaged and make the classroom a much more friendly place for all students.
Not all class work needs to be a game or a good time, but students who see school as a place where they can have fun will be more motivated to pay attention and do the work that’s required of them than those who regard it as a chore. Adding fun activities into your school day can help students who struggle to stay engaged and make the classroom a much more friendly place for all students.
21. Provide
opportunities for success.
Students, even the best ones, can become frustrated and demotivated when they feel like they’re struggling or not getting the recognition that other students are. Make sure that all students get a chance to play to their strengths and feel included and valued. It can make a world of difference in their motivation.
Students, even the best ones, can become frustrated and demotivated when they feel like they’re struggling or not getting the recognition that other students are. Make sure that all students get a chance to play to their strengths and feel included and valued. It can make a world of difference in their motivation.
22. Novelty
23.Consider individual differences
of the student
24. teaching skills
25. Teacher’s own motivation and
interest in teaching
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
MOTIVATION
OR
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION
IN LEARNING
- It energizes the learner and thus
it initiates learning activity.
- Motives activate, direct and
regulates the behaviour of the learner.
- It controls the learning behavior
of the individual.
- It sustains activity when a goal is
not immediately.
- Motivation selects behaviour that
is under motivated condition does not move in haphazard way.
- Motivations provide energy and accelerate
the behaviour of the learner.
- Motivation releases the release the
tension and helps in satisfying the needs of the learner.
THEORY
OF MOTIVATION- ABRAHAM MASLOW
OR
MASLOWS
THEORY OF SELF ACTUALIZATION
Human
motives or needs are arrange themselves in hierarchies of prepotency and only
when lower needs are satisfied can higher order needs be activated. As one need
is satisfied.the next higher order need will emerge and become operative in
life
Maslow
(1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that
some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical
survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once
that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.
1. Physiological
needs - these are biological requirements for human survival,
e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
If
these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow
considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become
secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety
needs - protection from elements, security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.
3. Love
and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs
have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves
feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates
behavior
Examples
include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving
affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem
needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem
for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire
for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
Maslow
indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for
children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization
needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences.
Changes to the original five-stage model are
highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage model; both
developed during the 1960's and 1970s.
1. Biological and physiological
needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love and belongingness needs
4. Esteem needs - which
Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity,
achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or
respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
5. Cognitive needs -
knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and
predictability.
6. Aesthetic
needs - appreciation and search
for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-actualization needs -
realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.
8. Transcendence
needs - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the
personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature,
aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of
science, religious faith, etc.).
Self-actualization
The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the
need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s
life. For Maslow, a person is always 'becoming' and never remains static in
these terms. In self-actualization, a person comes to find a meaning to life
that is important to them. As each individual is unique, the motivation for
self-actualization leads people in different directions.
For some people, self-actualization can be achieved through
creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the
classroom, or within a corporate setting.
Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured
through the concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences
the world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and
wonder.
It is important to note that self-actualization is a
continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a
'happy ever after'
Maslow offers the following description of
self-actualization:
'It
refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for
him to become actualized in what he is potentially.
The
specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from
person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an
ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another
it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions' (Maslow, 1943, p.
382–383).
Characteristics
of self-actualized people
Maslow
(1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1.
They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2.
Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3.
Spontaneous in thought and action;
4.
Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5.
Unusual sense of humor;
6.
Able to look at life objectively;
7.
Highly creative;
8.
Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9.
Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10.
Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11.
Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12.
Peak experiences;
13.
Need for privacy;
14.
Democratic attitudes;
15.
Strong moral/ethical standards.
MASLOW'S EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1.
The relationship between deficiency
needs and growth needs
2.
Obviously,
students who are very hungry or in physical danger will have little
psychological energy to put into learning
3.
Schools
and government agencies recognize that if students' basic needs are not
met, learning will suffer
4.
They
have responded by providing free
breakfast and lunch programs. The most important deficiency
needs, however, are those for love and self-esteem.
5.
Students
who do not feel that they are loved and that they are capable are unlikely to
have a strong motivation to achieve the higher-level growth objectives, such as
the search for knowledge and understanding for their own sake or the creativity
and openness to new ideas that are characteristic of the self-actualizing
person.
6.
A
teacher who can put students at ease and make them feel accepted and respected
as individuals is more likely (in Maslow's view) to help them become eager to
learn for the sake of learning and willing to risk being creative and open to
new ideas.
ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION
Achievement motivation
is the desire to do better, to achieve unique accomplishments, to complete with
a standard of excellence and to involve oneself with long term achievement
goals. It is the desire to accomplish difficult tasks and meet standards of
excellence.
Mc.David considers
achievement motivation as a system of goal direction in human activity that is
closely related to competence, aggressiveness, dominance and pursuit of
excellence.
Atkinson’s view is that
achievement motivation is defined as the desire to accomplish difficult tasks
and met standards of excellence. It is otherwise called need for achievement.
Achievement motivation is the generalized
tendency to strive for success and to choose goal-oriented,
success/failure activities
Even after they experience failure…
Achievement-motivated students will persist longer
at a task than will students who are less high in achievement motivation and
Will attribute their failures to lack of effort (an
internal but alterable condition) rather than to external factors such as task
difficulty or luck.
Achievement-motivated
students…
Want and expect to succeed;
When they fail, they redouble their
efforts until they do succeed.
Motivation
and goal orientations
Some students are motivationally
oriented toward learning goals (also called task or mastery goals). Others
are oriented toward performance goals. Students with learning goals see
the purpose of schooling as gaining competence in the skills being
taught Students with performance goals primarily seek to gain positive
judgments of their competence(and avoid negative judgments).
CHARACTERISTICS
OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
It is manifested only when the individual perceives performance as
instrumental to a sense of personal accomplishment.
It is conditioned by one’s early training,
experiences and subsequent learning.
It involves an exalted self esteem and self image.
It is a learned motive acquired in the process of
growing up and living
It is an intense desire to perform with excellence
for its own sake.
It includes need for success as well as need to
avoid failure.
It is an outcome of social learning and
reinforcements which individual have experienced.
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